Jewish Spotlight: Czech Republic

Boskovice German: Boskowitz A town in south Moravia, Czech Republic The town of Boskovice was founded during the 15th century and is located about 20 miles (32km) northeast of Brno, the capital of Moravia. Until 1918 the area was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. After the collapse of the empire following World War I, and until 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. Since 1993 it has been part of the Czech Republic. Of Boskovice's three synagogues, only the Great Synagogue survived World War II. Conservation and restoration work was carried out during the late 1980s, and by 1994 most of the structural issues and exterior conservation work had been done. Between 2000 and 2002 the remaining preservation work was carried out, thanks to grants from a number of organizations, including the World Monument Fund's Jewish Heritage Program. The fully restored building remains standing in its original location. The location of Boskovice's first cemetery is unknown. However, a second cemetery, which was most likely established during the 17th century, still exists. The tomb of Rabbi Samuel ben Nathan HaLevi Kolin, the author of Makhatsit HaShekel and the director of the town's yeshiva for more than 60 years, can be found there. Since 1993 the town has hosted an annual summer cultural festival dedicated to preserving and restoring the town's Jewish quarter. HISTORY The Jewish community of Boskovice was among the oldest in Moravia; during the reign of Karl IV in the 14th century it was also one of the largest. A tombstone from the year 1069 is the earliest evidence of a Jewish presence in Boskovice; later, a court document from 1243 also evidences a Jewish presence there. In 1454 the Jews were expelled from the royal towns of Moravia (free towns not under regional jurisdiction) and some, particularly from Brno, came to Boskovice. Jewish residence was limited to a Jewish street, and on Sundays and Christian holidays Jews were forbidden from entering other parts of the town. The overcrowding in the Jewish Quarter could be dangerous; in 1715 an epidemic broke out within the Jewish Quarter, leaving 892 dead and the Jewish Quarter quarantined for a year. A fire that broke out on May 1, 1823 destroyed the entire Jewish Quarter, along with 20 houses from the Christian part of the town. A cholera epidemic in 1866 during the Prussian War claimed many Jewish victims, and turned the Jewish school into a temporary hospital. Another fire broke out in 1882, and in 1906 there was an explosion in a warehouse owned by a Jewish merchant in which 40 Jewish people perished. By the 16th century there were enough Jews living in Boskovice that they established, and subsequently expanded, a cemetery. During the 17th century the community formed a more formal organizational structure and was led by a Jewish official who was responsible for arbitrating internal issues, as well as a committee of "Landesaltester:" rabbis, religious judges, and melamdim (teachers). There were three synagogues: the Great Synagogue, which was built in 1698 and subsequently renovated three times, a second synagogue that was built during the 18th century and which also served as a beit midrash, and a third synagogue financed by the Low-Beer family that was built in 1884. The Jewish school also had a place to pray, and for Rosh Hashana additional prayer services were set up in the Jewish kindergarten (which later served as a gathering place for the community). Boskovice became a well-known religious center. Among the rabbis serving the community were Rabbi Yehudah Oppenheim of Worms, Rabbi Nehemia Yaffe of Krakow, Rabbi Natan Adler, Rabbi Issachar Baer Bloch of Hamburg, Rabbi Mosher Sofer, Rabbi Shmuel Halevy Kolin and his son Rabbi Benjamin Zeev Boskovic who founded a yeshiva in the town, Rabbi Avraham Platzek, who served as the chief rabbi of Moravia between 1851 and 1884, and Rabbi Salomon Funk. The last rabbi to serve the community was Isidor Reich. Many of these rabbis wrote influential books, while some were also active in the Zionist movement. A Jewish school is referenced in 1591. Over time additional classes were added for boys and girls, who were taught separately. In 1855 the school was turned into a Hauptschule (a German secondary school), and was considered to be one of the best Jewish schools in Moravia. The community established a Jewish hospital, a mikvah, a chevra kaddisha, an organization to support the sick, a loan society, a women's society, and a first aid organization. There were also several Jewish firefighters and policemen. During the summer of 1938 a course for training Jewish teachers was held in the town. In the beginning, the Jews of Boskovice were subject to economic restrictions; in 1565 they were allowed to own land, but were forbidden from supplying goods to the villages. During the 17th and 18th centuries most worked as traders and artisans but over the course of the 19th century Boskovice became a center for the new ready-made clothing industry, due particularly to the Schwarz, Ticho, Munk, and Low-Beer families, who established textile factories in the town. In addition to funding the construction of a new synagogue, mentioned previously, the Low-Beer family also established a number of charitable organizations to serve the Jews of Boskovice. Others worked in professionals fields and as artists. The eye specialist Dr. Avraham Ticho, the historian Oscar K. Rabinovitz, the German writer and member of the Prague Circle Herman Unger, and Dr. Moritz (Moshe) Zobel, one of the chief editors of the German-language Encyclopedia Judaica, were from Boskovice. After 1848, when the Jews of Moravia received full civil and religious rights, a number of civil, social, and economic activities became available to the Jews of the area. This prompted many to leave for larger towns and cities, particularly Brno and Vienna. However, the town was a popular vacation spot and during the interwar period the town's population would increase during the summer. A sports organization was formed in 1909 which, during the 1920s, became a chapter of Maccabi. A Zionist organization was also founded around the same time. The organization Agudas Yisroel was also active. Students formed a vacation organization for the promotion of Zionism during their vacations, and in 1926 the Jews of Boskovice contributed in order to receive membership and voting rights at the Zionist Congress; during the elections to the 20th Zionist congress in 1937, there were 37 Jews from Boskovice who voted. In 1930, after the Republic of Czechoslovakia recognized the Jews as a national minority, more than 75% of the community declared themselves as belonging to the Jewish nation. In 1793 there were 300 Jewish families living in Boskovice; by 1830 there were 326 families (a total of 1,595 people), and by 1857 there were 2,018 Jews living in Boskovice. Towards the end of the 19th century, Jews began moving to larger towns and cities, resulting in a population decline. By 1900 there were 598 Jews living in Boskovice and 116 houses were owned by Jews. In 1930 there were 395 Jews living in Boskovice (about 6% of the total population). THE HOLOCAUST Following the Munich Agreement of September 29, 1938, about a year before the outbreak of World War II, the Republic of Czechoslovakia was dissolved. The areas of Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany on March 15, 1939, after which the Jews living in the area were gradually deprived of their rights and properties. Beginning in November 1941 the Germans concentrated the Jews remaining in the Czech territory in the Terezin (German: Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were sent to concentration and death camps, mainly in Poland, where most were killed. Approximately 473 Jews from Boskovice and the surrounding area were killed during the Holocaust. Before the expulsion from Boskovice, 1,244 documents, 139 books, and 351 ritual articles belonging to the community were transferred to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. After the war, very few Jews returned to Boskovice. Of those who chose to remain in the country, many settled in Brno. In 1948 there were 60 Jews registered in the community of Boskovice. An additional 27 Jews were not registered. During the 1980s the Jewish Quarter was still well-preserved.

Bratislava German: Pressburg, Hungarian: Pozsony Capital of Slovakia. Part of Hungary until 1918 Bratislava was the chartered capital of the kings of Hungary. It was one of the most ancient and important Jewish centers in the Danube region. The first Jews probably arrived with the Roman legions, but the first documented evidence of their presence in the city dates from the 13th century. In 1291 the community was granted a charter by King Andrew the III and a synagogue is first mentioned in 1335. The Jews of Bratislava mainly engaged in moneylending, but there were also merchants, artisans, vineyard owners, and vintners. The Jews were expelled from Hungary in 1360, but returned in 1367. In 1371 the municipality introduced the Judenbuch, which regulated financial dealings between Jews and Christians. Money matters between Jews and Christians, however, could unexpectedly take complicated turns. King Sigismund granted Christians an exemption for the year 1392 from paying interest on loans borrowed from Jews. Later, in 1441 and 1450, all outstanding debts owed to Jews were cancelled, and in 1475 Jews were forbidden from accepting real estate as security. Ladislas II prevented Jews from attempting to leave Bratislava in 1506 by confiscating the property of those who had already left. This proved to be somewhat ironic since the Jews were eventually expelled from Bratislava, and Hungary as a whole, in 1526. Instead, the Jews began settling in the surrounding areas of Shlossberg and Zuckermandel. A Jewish community was not reestablished in Bratislava until the end of the seventeenth century when Samuel Oppenheimer resettled the city. He was followed by other Jews, some of whom were born locally and others who came from Vienna, which had expelled its Jews in 1670, Bohemia and Moravia, as well as a small number from Poland. A synagogue was built in 1695 where the first known rabbi to work there was Yom Tov Lipmann. In 1699 the court Jew Simon Michael, who had settled in Bratislava in 1693, was appointed as head of the community. He built a beit midrash and bought land to build a cemetery. During the 18th and 19th centuries the Jews of Bratislava were leaders in both the business and religious worlds. In business they were among the leaders of the textile trade, while the religious leader Rabbi Moses Sofer (better known as the Hatam Sofer) turned Bratislava into a center of Jewish life. The Hatam Sofer became a leader of Orthodoxy, and is perhaps best known for his (ironically radical) statement that "He-hadash asur min haTorah," "Innovation is forbidden according to the Torah." His status as a rabbi, teacher, scholar, rosh yeshiva, and halakhist was unparalleled. Upon his death his son, Avraham Shmuel Binyamin (otherwise known as the Ketav Sofer) and then his grandson Simcha Bumen, and his great-grandson Akiva succeeded him in turn. Other outstanding rabbis that served in the city before the Hatam Sofer were Moshe Harif of Lemberg, Akiva Eger (the elder), Yitzhak Landau of Kukla, Meir Barbi of Halberstadt, and Meshulam Igra of Tymenitsa. Each was an outstanding Talmudic scholar, and Landau and Barbi established large and prestigious yeshivas. In spite of the Hatam Sofer's uncompromising Orthodoxy, the Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment) made important inroads, particularly among the wealthy merchants and intellectuals in the city. In 1820 those who were in favor of the Haskalah succeeded in establishing an elementary school that combined religious and secular studies. Shortly thereafter the community's Orthodox majority also built a Talmud Torah that combined religious and secular studies, under the supervision of the city's chief rabbi. The community was also split during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. While those who were in favor of reform, led by Adolf Neustadt, enthusiastically supported the revolution, joining the National Guard and advocating for Jewish emancipation, the Orthodox leadership distanced themselves from these actions. Anti-Jewish riots subsequently broke out during the revolution around Easter; the Jews of Bratislava suffered the worst violence. While no Bratislavan Jews were killed, there were many who were severely beaten, and there was enormous damage done to property. The Jewish Quarter was placed under military protection, and Jews who lived elsewhere had to move within it. The violence prompted calls to emigrate to the US. The Revolution of 1848 would not be the last time that the Jews of Bratislava were the victims of pogroms and anti-Jewish violence. 1850 saw more anti-Jewish riots around the holiday of Easter. Further outbreaks of anti-Jewish violence followed the Tiszaeszlar blood libel in 1882 and 1883, as well as after other blood libels in 1887 and 1889. Tensions continued to grow between the Orthodox and the maskilim within the community. After 1869 the Orthodox, Neologist, and Status Quo Ante factions in Bratislava formed separate congregations. The Orthodox provincial office (Landseskanzlei) later became notorious for its opposition to Zionism. The Neolog and Status Quo Ante congregations united in 1928 as the Jeshurun Federation. Jewish institutions in Bratislava included religious schools, charitable organizations, and a Jewish hospital. The Hungarian Zionist organization was founded in Bratislava in 1902, and the World Mizrachi Organization was founded in 1904; the latter sparked protests from over 100 rabbis. The first Hungarian Zionist Congress was held in Bratislava in March 1903 and the city became the Hungarian center for the Zionist Organization in Hungary. With the establishment of Czechoslovakia, Bratislava also became the center of Agudas Yisroel in Czechoslovakia, in addition to remaining a Zionist center. Several Jewish newspapers and a Hebrew weekly, "HaYehudi," were printed in the city. There were also over 300 Hebrew and Yiddish books printed in the city between 1831 and 1930. The Orthodox Jewish Communities of Slovakia was established in the city, enabling the Orthodox community to cut ties with Hungary. The German army occupied Czechoslovakia in March, 1938 and soon established an independent Slovak state. Even before the declaration of the independent state, there were attacks on the synagogue and yeshiva on November 11, 1938. Nearly 1,000 Jewish students were expelled from the university and anti-Jewish terror, restrictive measures, and pogroms increased. With the establishment of the Slovak state, Jews continued to suffer from discrimination. Akiva Shreiber and a number of his yeshiva students succeeded in leaving Bratislava for Palestine at the end of 1939. Nonetheless, the Jewish population of Bratislava peaked in 1940 at 18,000 people (13% of the total population of the city). This was in spite of the fact that Jewish organizations, with the exception of religious communal activities, were prohibited from organizing activities. Additionally, Jews were evicted from various neighborhoods, Jewish students were expelled from public schools, and Jewish properties were confiscated. By the fall of 1941 about half of the city's population had been forcibly sent from the city to the provinces; by the summer of 1942 two-thirds of the Jews of Bratislava were sent to concentration or extermination camps. Gisi Fleischmann of WIZO and Mikhael Dov Ber Weissmandel began organizing an underground resistance movement. They contacted international Jewish organizations, in the hopes that they could save the Jews who remained in the city and the surrounding area. August 1944 saw a Slovak uprising, and the country was subsequently occupied by the Germans. At that point, the remaining Jews in Bratislava were deported. In the end, approximately 13,000 Jews from Bratislava were killed during the Holocaust. After the war, the city was an important transit point for the thousands of displaced Jews who were making their way to other countries and began to rebuild. The Orthodox and Neolog communities united and maintained two cemetaries, a mikvah, a slaughterhouse, a soup kitchen, a matzah bakery, a Jewish hospital, an old age home, and a Jewish orphanage. Zionist activity resumed; HaShomer HaTzair and Bnei Akiva led activities for orphans preparing to emigrate to Mandate Palestine. Maccabi HaTzair and Beitar were also active. Though there was an attempt to reopen the Pressburg Yeshiva, it ultimately failed. After the communist takeover, thousands more Jews left the city, most of whom went to Israel. According to an agreement made with Israel, 4,000 Jews were permitted to leave and enter Israel at the end of the 1940s while 2,000 remained in Bratislava. In 1969 there were 1,500 Jews in the city. The 1990s saw the opening of a number of memorials and places of Jewish interest. A Jewish cultural heritage museum was opened in the old Jewish Quarter. A memorial plaque was added to the Orthodox cemetery in memory of the 13,000 Jewish victims of Bratislava who were killed during the Holocaust. Additionally, in 1997 a monument commemorating the Slovakian Jewish victims of the Nazis was erected on the site where the Pressburg Yeshiva once stood. Jewish organizations and municipal authorities worked together to renovate and reopen the grave of the Hatam Sofer, among other rabbis, to the public. In the year 2000 there were 800 Jews living in Bratislava.

Breclav German: Lundenburg A town in south Moravia, Czech Republic The building that once housed the synagogue underwent a series of renovations during the late 1990s and at the turn of the 20th century. The building houses the Breclav Museum and includes an exhibit about, and artifacts from, the Jewish community that once existed in the town. A memorial plaque is located in the entrance hall, commemorating the Jewish community. The Jewish cemetery, which was founded during the 17th century, contains approximately 400 tombstones dating from the 18th until the 20th century. The cemetery incurred heavy damages during the 1980s, but was restored between 1991 and 1993. Of the 72 houses that stood in the Jewish quarter, 24 remain. Among them is the former school, which was originally built in 1884 and now houses the Liechtenstein Museum. HISTORY The first reference to Jews in Breclav dates to 1411. By the middle of the 16th century there was a large Jewish community in the town, as well as a synagogue. This community, however, was the victim of violence that erupted in 1574, 1605, and 1622 and was ultimately destroyed when the city was captured by the Swedes in 1643. Jews expelled from the Austrian town of Feldberg settled in Breclav in 1651 and began to build a Jewish community. They observed the 11th day of the Hebrew month of Tevet as a holiday to commemorate their escape in 1697 when the synagogue roof collapsed while the congregation was waiting to enter. Mordecai Banet served as the rabbi of the community from 1787 until 1789 and the historian Heinrich Graetz taught at the Jewish school from 1850 until 1852. The opera singer Julius Lieban (1857-1940) was born in Breclav. The Breslav synagogue was built in 1868; 20 years later it was renovated and rebuilt in the Romaniesque Revival style with some Moorish elements in the interior. In 1702 there were 30 Jewish families living in 12 houses in Breclav and 66 families in 1726. There were 589 Jews living in the town in 1930 (4.3% of the total population), the majority (432) of whom declared their nationality as Jewish. THE HOLOCAUST Following the Munich Agreement of September 29, 1938, about a year before the outbreak of World War II, the Republic of Czechoslovakia was dissolved. The areas of Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany on March 15, 1939, after which the Jews living in the area were gradually deprived of their rights and properties. Beginning in November 1941 the Germans concentrated the Jews remaining in the Czech territory in the Terezin (German: Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were sent to concentration and death camps, mainly in Poland, where most were killed. Many of the objects remaining in the synagogue were sent to the Jewish Central Museum in Prague. POSTWAR For 50 years, during and after World War II, the building that once housed the synagogue was used for storage. During the mid-1990s the synagogue building was acquired by the Breclav municipality and underwent a major reconstruction between 1997 and 2000.

Breznice (German: Bresnitz) A town in the district of Pribram, south-west Bohemia, Czech Republic. Breznice is situated in an area where mainly rye is grown, on a railroad junction. In the town are preserved 2 churches of the 17th century and a castle of the time of the Renaissance, in which an art collection is kept. Till 1918 the area belonged to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and since then, until 1993, to the Republic of Czechoslovakia. Jews started to settle in Breznice apparently in the 1560s. A Jewish town is first mentioned in 1570, outside the town walls, in a section allocated to the Jews by Graf Ferdinand von Loksan. The place was called Loksan. In 1649 there lived in Loksan 17 Jewish families. The "Jewish town" consisted of 22 houses in 2 alleys and 2 squares. In the house of the rabbi was also a mikveh, in the yard of the house was a small hut, in which the slaughtering of poultry took place. For some time there was in one of the houses a kitchen that served food to passing visitors and merchants, who came to the markets held in Breznice. A synagogue was built in one of the squares in 1725, when the number of Jewish families reached 25. Among the ritual articles that remained is a curtain of the holy ark of the year 1793, the donation of Joachim Popper. On the second floor of the synagogue was a heder. In 1745 anti-Jewish disturbances broke out in Breznice, in the course of which the southern part of the cemetery was destroyed and only the northern part remained, close to the Vlacavka River and in it the funeral house. In 1797 16 Jewish children attended a general school in the German language. The course of time the community organized its own school, also in the German language. This school was closed down in 1901, when the Jews started to use the Czech language. In 1824 145 Jewish people lived in Loksan. The synagogue was destroyed by fire in 1821 and with the help of Graf Colobret Krakowski it was rebuilt; exactly as before, only the bimah was moved from the centre closer to the Holy Ark. The synagogue was last renovated in 1874. Following the emancipation of the Jews in Bohemia (1848), the Jews began leaving the crowded Jewish quarter and the community gradually declined in numbers. In 1900 118 Jews lived in the community; in 1910 only 68; and in 1921 just 41. From 1720 Breznice served as the seat of the area rabbi; the first of them was Rabbi Isack Spitz. Mendel Pollak, the area rabbi in the years 1815- 1866, opened in 1830 a Jewish Talmud Torah, but in 1941 it was closed down because of financial difficulties. A collection of 695 letters which portray the life of the Jews in southern Bohemia at that time remained after his term of office. The last area rabbi to reside in Breznice was rabbi Prazak and since 1881 the area rabbi was a resident of Pribram. The local rabbis in Breznice were: rabbi Adolf Traub, Rabbi Ignatz Nettl, Rabbi Joseph Miller, Rabbi Prof. Dr. Karl Cohen (who delivered his sermons in the Czech language) and the last rabbi, Adolf Neu, elected in 1915. The religious slaughterer was also the beadle of the synagogue. Most of the Jews of Breznice were traders, who did business also in the large fairs of Leipzig. There were among them the lessees of the liquor distilleries and the renters of the potash industry, craftsmen, and since the 19th century also professional people. Joachim Popper, a merchant in fish-bones, in potash and in pearls, and the only licensee of the business in tobacco, brought to the town’s treasury large amounts of money, paid his employees generously and in the years of the hunger 1770-1772 helped needy Jews and non-Jews alike. In 1780 he was awarded a title of nobility (among the first of the Jews of Bohemia). He moved to Prague and dealt in lending money, among others to the royal house. The award of nobility to a Jew caused anti-Jewish riots in all bohemia and in Vienna.

Brno (Bruenn in German) A provincial capital in Moravia, Czech republic. Brno was granted the status of a city in 1243 and until 1640 served alternately with Olomouc as the capital of Moravia. Between 1640-1948 Brno was the sole capital. Brno was the second largest city in Czechoslovakia. It was a cultural, commercial and industrial centre for textiles, automobiles, railroad-cars, munitions (Bren machine-guns) and clothing. In the city ancient churches from the 14th century and the remains of an old fort still exist. Brno was known for its educational institutions in the German and Czech languages. Until 1918 the city was under the rule of the Austro-Hungarian empire and since then until 1993 a part of the Czechoslovak Republic. In 1254, Ottokar Przemysl II king of Moravia invited Jews to settle in Brno and granted them a letter of privileges. In the middle of the 14th century, there were 1,000 Jews in a special quarter of the city which one could enter only through the "Jews gate". At the head of the Jewish autonomous community was the "Parnas" who represented the Jews before the city and provincial authorities. The community institutions were financed by the taxes of its members. The community also paid a "Jewish tax" to the local authorities. As early as 1378 there was a Jewish school in the city. In the first half of the 15th century Israel Bruneh officiated as rabbi. During the period of the Hussite wars 1419-1436 the hatred against Jews increased causing the deaths of thousands of Jews and the destruction of many Jewish communities in Bohemia and Moravia, among them Brno. On November 11, 1454, King Ladislav Posthumus expelled the Jews of the city and gave the Jewish homes to the townspeople. For 400 years Jews were forbidden to live within the city walls. Only a few court Jews were allowed there. Jews who came to Brno could spend the night only in the suburb Kroena where a Jewish inn with a kosher kitchen had been established in 1660. The guests at the inn were forbidden to hold public prayer services, to go out at night or have any social contact with the local population. Only commercial relationships were permitted. In 1769 Jacov Dobrushka who leased the inn needed a special permit to pray in his home and keep a Torah scroll there. Jacob Frank, the founder of the Frankist movement and a relative of Dobrushka came to the city in 1773 and was active there until 1786. At the beginning of the 18th century there were 52 Jews who lived in the city illegally. In 1722, the city authorities allowed the chief Parnas of the Jews of Moravia to live near the city gate. The "family law" passed in 1726 by Emperor Karl VI which limited the number of Jews in Moravian cities and the head-taxes levied by queen Maria Theresa in 1744 were hard on the Jews of Moravia. An improvement in their condition came as a result of the "toleration edict" passed in 1782 by Emperor Joseph II, which allowed Jews to open schools, obtain higher education and work as artisans. The city municipal council appealed against the edict. The Jews of Brno attained these privileges only after some years. In 1797, 12 Jews lived in the city and 113 in the suburbs. In 1804 the number had increased to 199. In 1834 there were 135 Jews in the city. The total population was 17,262. In 1848 the Jews attained equal civil rights. The community began to organize its institutions. In 1852 a burial society was founded, permission was granted to appoint a rabbi and consecrate a cemetery. The first rabbi of the renewed community was David Ashkenazi, who still worked ostensibly as "meat inspector". The synagogue was founded in 1853. The prayer-house was established in 1883 and enlarged afterwards. In 1906 a new synagogue was built. In 1857 there were 2230 Jews among a population of 59,819. In 1859 the community was officially recognized. In 1860 Heinrich Kafka was chosen president of the community. Dr. Baruch Placzek was rabbi and during the period 1884-1922 he also served as chief rabbi of the country. A cantor also served the community. In 1861 the constitution of the community was approved by the authorities and a Jewish school with German as the language of instruction was opened. 77 boys and 76 girls studied there. In 1880 a ritual bath and a Matzoth factory were Bnei Brith chapter, a fraternity "Societa" for social services, a group to support yeshiva scholars and the "Hort" organization whose members were business men and clerks were founded. In 1890 the number of Jews in the city rose to 7,087. During World War I the community helped about 16,000 Jewish refugees who had come to the city from Galicia and Bukovina and also helped the Jewish soldiers stationed in the area. Some of the refugees remained in the city after the war. During the period of the Czechoslovak Republic (1918-1938) a new community council was chosen, a Jewish elementary school with five classes and a Jewish reformed science high school with eight classes (the only one in western Czechoslovakia) were opened. At first the language of instruction was German, later on Czech. Jewish students, many from Eastern Europe where they could not get an academic education because of Numerus Clausus (a law limiting the percentage of Jewish students) came to study in the institutions for higher learning in Brno. In 1922 there were 10,668 Jews in the city. The leaders of the community were Rabbi Dr. Ludwig Levi and Shmuel Beran the president. In 1931, the president of the community was the industrialist Julius Zwicker. During the 13th century, the Jews who settled in Brno enjoyed trading rights equal to those of the Christians and could buy houses and land. After the expulsion in 1454 every Jewish merchant who tried to trade in the city markets was punished. Only in the 16th century were Jews allowed to trade there after payment of double taxes and only twice a week, in spite of the revenue they brought to the city coffers. During the Thirty Years War which broke out in 1618, the Jews were the purveyers for the Kaiser's army and helped the cities by granting them loans. The guilds and townspeople opposed granting the Jews additional privileges in return. In 1753 Franz Joseph Neuman was granted permission to establish a Hebrew printing press and in 1765 Jews leased tobacco farms and a textile factory. After 1860 when Jews of Moravia were allowed to purchase real estate the development of trade and industry was rapid. Jews were prominent industrialists. They were also active in medicine, architecture, engineering, banking and other fields. World War I affected the economic conditions of the Jews adversely but during the period of the Czechoslovak Republic the community prospered once again. In Brno there were well-known Jewish artists, the poet Hieronymus Lorm, the writers Philip Langmen, Oscar Jelinik and Felix Langer, the singers Caroline Giperz and Leopold Demuth, the musicologist Paul Stephan, the violinist Heinrich Wilhelm Ernst and the composers Pavel Hass and Hans Shimring. Dr. Adolph Frankel of Brno was a theatre manager. From the beginning of their settlement in the city, the Jews were faced by the enmity of the town's people. The church at times incited outbursts of violence, like the pogroms which followed the black plague in 1348. Even after the Jews were given equal rights with the gentiles there were manifestations of anti-Semitism. Only in the second half of the 19th century there was an improvement in the status of the Jews in Christian society. At the end of the 19th century Zionist societies were organized ("Theodor Herzl" "Zion" "Emuna" (from which Poalei Zion developed afterwards) and "Zfira". The students society "Veritas" spread the Zionist ideology, helped found a students hostel, and organized a "Jewish Soldiers Council" fearing anti-Semitic activities as a result of the declaration of the Czechoslovak Republic. This group later founded the Jewish peoples council in Brno (the Moravian chapter of the National Jewish Council founded in Prague in 1918.) The Czechoslovak Republic in the period between the two world wars granted the Jews national cultural autonomy. The "Juedische Akademische Lese Und Rede Halle" was founded in Brno. Many Jewish students from the provincial towns and neighboring countries were active within this framework. The Jews of Brno were also active in political affairs. Dr Adolph Stranski was a member of the Austrian parliament and during the period of the Republic was a member of the senate. His son, Yaroslav Stranski was minister of justice in the Czech government in exile in London during World War II and during the years 1945-48 was minister of education. Dr. Ludwig Czech was vice-chairman of the German social-democratic party for 18 years and served in turn as minister of social welfare, minister of public works and minister of health. Johann Pollack was a member of the senate. Ziegfried Taub was a member of parliament. Dr. Czech and Johann Pollach were killed in the Terezin ghetto. In the municipal council elections held in 1919 one representative of the Poalei Zion was elected and three of the Jewish national list. In 1921 the headquarters of the federation of Zionist organizations was established in Brno. Dr. Alfred Engel and Dr. Adolf Greenfeld of Brno were on the central committee. Branches of "Hitachdut", "Hamizrahi", "Revisionist Zionist", "Wizo" (from 1934) and "General Zionists" (from 1934) were active in the city. "Poalei Zion" opened a branch in 1921 and Siegfried Spitz of Brno was head of the youth department in all of Czechoslovakia. The Zionist youth movements, "Hashomer Hazair", "Tchelet Lavan", "Maccabi Hazair" and "Bnei Akiva" competed in efforts to gain members. A Jewish sport club was active in Brno from 1907. From 1924, Brno was the regional centre of Maccabi and the centre of Bar-Kochba in Moravia and Silesia. In 1927 Dr. Karl Sonnenfeld of Brno was vice-president of world Maccabi. In 1931, five Jews from Brno were members of the central committee of the newly-founded Jewish party. Among the Jewish weeklies in the city were the "Juedische Volksstimme (voice of the Jewish People) published by Max Hickl and "Juedische Sozialist" (the Jewish socialist) and "Der Neue Weg" (the new way) by Hugo Gold. In 1938 there were 11,003 Jews in the city. The Holocaust Period After the annexation of Austria to Germany (March 1938) many Jewish refugees arrived in Brno and were in need of help from the community. In September 1938 a year before the outbreak of World War II the Czechoslovak Republic was dissolved as a result of the Munich pact. At the end of 1938 more than 1,000 Jews emigrated to Eretz Israel, most of them illegally, only a few had valid certificates. On March 15, 1939 the German army occupied the Czech lands (Bohemia and Moravia) and the country became a protectorate of the Third Reich. The main synagogue in Brno was wrecked that same day and the small synagogue bombed afterwards. A few days later the jails of the Gestapo were filled with Jewish prisoners who were then sent to the concentration camp Mauthausen. On October 1, there were only 9.726 Jews in the city. At the end of 1939, the Germans forbade Jewish emigration. The fascist rule removed the Jews step by step from the cultural, social and economic life. At the beginning of October 1941 there were 11,102 Jews in the city. A short time later the systematic transfer of Czech Jews into ghettos and death camps began. On November 18, 1941 the first transport of 1,000 men, women and children was sent to Minsk in Belorussia. Many died there within two weeks because of shortages of water and medicines. The weak were taken outside the ghetto and shot to death or murdered in special gas-trucks. The bodies were thrown into a pit in the nearby forest. From this transport only eleven Jews survived. Between December 2, 1941 and July 1, 1943 9,064 Jews in eleven transports arrived in Terezin. Some died there but most of them were killed in the death camps in Poland especially Auschwitz. Only 684 Jews survived. Jews married to gentiles were left in the city. They were deported in 1945 but most of them survived. Many Jews from Brno served on the eastern front in the framework of the Czech units of the red army. After the liberation of the city by the Red Army, and until April 30, 1945, 804 survivors returned to the city. They renewed the activities of the community, repaired the orthodox synagogue and opened an old- age home. Dr. Richard Feder was appointed rabbi. A chazan was also employed. The community provided services for the Jews of Kyjov, Olomouc and Ostrava. In 1969 rabbi Feder also served as chief rabbi of Moravia and Bohemia. In 1948 there were 1,398 Jews in the community. During the fifties a memorial was erected for the victims of the Holocaust. During that period the number of Jews in the city and its environs declined to 900. As a result of the Russian invasion in 1698 most of the Jews left the city but returned afterwards. In 1969 there were 700 Jews there. In 1973 about 500 Jews were registered in the community. The total population of the city was 330,000. The number of Jews in the city not registered in the community is not known. By the early 2000s the number had dropoped to slightly less than 300. the community was responsible for the management of 10 synagogues and 45 cemeteries throughout Moravia, including restoration work.

Bucovice German: Butschowitz A town in southern Moravia, Czech Republic Bucovice is located 6 miles (10km) southeast of the town of Rousinov. Until 1918 the area was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. After the collapse of the empire following World War I, and until 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. Since 1993 it has been part of the Czech Republic. The cemetery of Bucovice is still standing and in good condition. The tombstones date from the mid-18th through the twentieth century and the inscriptions are written in Hebrew, German, and Czech. The cemetery is owned by the Brno Jewish community, which supports the cemetery's upkeep. HISTORY The Jewish community of Bucovice is one of the oldest in Moravia. It was established by Jews who were expelled from the city of Brno in 1454, though there is speculation that there were Jews living in the town even earlier. A synagogue was built in 1690 and later renovated in 1853. Though it is unclear exactly when the cemetery was established, there are tombstones dating to the 18th century. Jews were permitted to purchase houses outside of the Jewish quarter in 1709. During the 18th century the community's importance grew, evidenced by the fact that it hosted conventions of the Jewish leaders of Moravia in 1709, 1724, and 1748. The Jewish community of Bucovice was one of the 52 "politische gemeine" (political communities) with an independent municipal authority recognized by the authorities in Moravia in 1798; in 1849 the status of the community changed to a kultusgemeinde (a religious-cultural community). A Jewish school opened during the late 18th century and a chevra kaddisha was established in 1878. The community was also home to a women's society, as well as a Bikkur Kholim. By 1673 there were 11 homes owned by 9 Jewish families in Bucovice and in 1725 there were 24 houses in the Jewish Quarter and 2 more homes in the Christian area of the town occupied by Jews. There were 508 Jews living in Bucovice in 1798 and in 1848 there were 566. Among the community's rabbis were Rabbi Avigdor, Rabbi Meir of Pinczow, Rabbi Jacob, Rabbi Shlomo Tuerkels, Rabbi Yair Brenner, Rabbi Nathan Zorn, Rabbi Hirsch Duschak, Rabbi Bernard Loewenstein (who wrote religious-educational poetry including "Gruss an Palestina"), Rabbi Dr. Herman Lipschitz, and Rabbi Dr. Avraham Loewy, who served the community between 1874 and 1889. Beginning in 1894 the community was affiliated with the Rousinov rabbinate. During the middle of the 18th century the Jews worked as shopkeepers, peddlers, butchers, tailors, tanners, distillers, and bathhouse attendants. After the Jews of Moravia were emancipated in 1848 more began working as professionals. Well-known figures from Bucovice included the pianist and composer Joseph Fischhof, who was born in Bucovice in 1804 and died in Vienna in 1857. The Republic of Czechoslovakia, which was founded in 1918, recognized the Jews as a national minority with civil and religious rights. The decline in Bucovice's Jewish population, which had begun after the emancipation of the Jews of Moravia in 1848, continued after the establishment of the Republic as Jews began seeking opportunities in larger towns and cities. There were 180 Jews living in Bucovice in 1900, but by 1921 that number had decreased to 135. In 1930 there were only 64 Jews (2% of the total population) living in the town, only 13 of whom declared their nationality as Jewish. THE HOLOCAUST Following the Munich Agreement of September 29, 1938, about a year before the outbreak of World War II, the Republic of Czechoslovakia was dissolved. The areas of Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany on March 15, 1939, after which the Jews living in the area were gradually deprived of their rights and properties. Beginning in November 1941 the Germans concentrated the Jews remaining in the Czech territory in the Terezin (German: Theresienstadt) Ghetto; the Jews of Bucovice were sent to the ghetto between March and April 1942. From there they were sent to concentration and death camps, mainly in Poland, where most were killed. Before their expulsion from Bucovice, 98 books and 112 ritual objects were transferred to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR Jewish life in Bucovice was not renewed after the war. The building that once housed the synagogue was destroyed by Czech authorities in 1966.

Bzenec German: Bisenz A town in Moravia, Czech Republic The cemetery, with tombstones dating from the 17th century until the 20th century, has been preserved; its upkeep is sponsored by the Jewish community of Brno. Also preserved are the pre-burial house, an ohel, a wall, and vaults. HISTORY The community of Bzenec was one of the oldest in Moravia; a Bzenec medieval chronicler refers to the town as "nidus Judaeorum" ("Nest of Jews"). Relatively unusually for the time, during the 15th century the Jews were allowed to own vineyards. During that period viticulture was a major source of income in the area, and the Jewish community contributed significantly to its development. The town, including the Jewish Quarter, was destroyed in 1458 during the war between George Podiebrad of Bohemia and Matthias of Hungary. In 1604 there were 400 Jewish residents, living in 49 buildings, as well as a Jewish hospital. However, the Jewish Quarter was again destroyed in 1605, this time by the Transylvanian prince Stephen Bocskai. Nearly 150 years later, during the first Silesian war of 1742, the Jewish community was affected by new discriminatory laws. In addition to having to pay high taxes, they were also subject to Empress Maria Theresa's 1553 Family Ordinance (Familien-Verordnung), which imposed residence restrictions on Jews in the area; only 137 Jews were permitted to live in Bzenec. There was further trouble in 1777 when nearly the entire Jewish Quarter, including 93 Jewish-owned houses, burned down. Beginning in 1852, after the 1848 emancipation of the Jews in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the community was recognized as an autonomous political community (politische gemeinde). A new synagogue was built in 1863; the synagogue that was demolished in 1859 had probably stood for 500 years. There was also a matzah factory, as well as a sugar refinery owned by Rudolph Auspitz. Rabbis of the town included Nehemiah Bruell (1866-1870) and Moses Rosenmann (1894-1897). Other notable figures who were born in Bzenec, or who lived there at some point in their lives, were the artist Max Kurzweil, the linguist Norbert Jokl, the eye doctor (and father of Austrian physician Hans Konigstein) Leopold Konigstein, the merchant and inventor (and father of the artist Wolfgang Paalen) Gustav Robert Paalen, the journalist Gerda Rodel (born Gerda Neuwirth), the 16th-century author Moses ben Isaac, the Jewish educator Moses ben Aaron Morawczyk, and Rabbi Samuel Muhsam. In 1753 there were 137 families living in the community. Just over one hundred years later the Jewish population peaked at 965. In 1900 there were 416 people in the community, and 138 (3.4% of the total population) in 1930. THE HOLOCAUST In January of 1943 the Jews of Bzenec were deported to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto via Kyjov. From the ghetto they were sent to concentration and death camps. Meanwhile, the synagogue's ritual objects were sent to the Jewish Central Museum in Prague. POSTWAR A small congregation, administered by the Kyjov community, was reestablished after World War II. In 1956 a monument was dedicated in the cemetery in memory of the Nazi victims of World War II.

Ceske Budejovice German: Budweis The largest city in the region of south Bohemia, Czech Republic The Jewish cemetery of Ceske Budejovice contains a mix of some of the original graves of the Jewish residents who were buried there from 1868 until the 20th century, as well as monuments to Holocaust victims and unmarked mass graves of Soviet soldiers. The cemetery building has been converted into a museum about the city's Jews. HISTORY Jews were living in Ceske Budejovice at least since the 14th century, evidenced by the fact that in 1341 two Jews in the city were granted a tax remission for ten years. By 1390 the Jewish population was large enough that Jews were living in a separate quarter in the city. The beginning of the 16th century saw outbreaks of violence against the Jews of Ceske Budejovice. There were anti-Jewish riots in 1505 and 1506; in 1505 a number of Jews were killed after a blood libel accusation, and 1506 saw a number of Jewish children being forcibly removed from their parents and baptized. Subsequently, the Jews were expelled from the city. Though they eventually received permission to attend fairs in 1538, they did not resettle in Ceske Budejovice until after the emancipation of Austro-Hungarian Jews in 1848. In 1859 an organized kultusverein (organized Jewish communal life) was instituted. A cemetery was established in 1866 and a synagogue was built in Neo-Gothic style in 1868. In 1902 there were 1,263 people in the community. By 1930 the Jewish population was 1,138 (2.6% of the total population). The rabbis who served the community included Emil Krakauer (1905-1906) and Karl Thieberger (1906-1930). THE HOLOCAUST In June 1939, following the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, the offices of the Jewish community in Ceske Budejovice were closed down. As the Nuremberg Laws began to take effect, the Jews of Ceske Budejovice (like their coreligionists anywhere under Nazi occupation) were no longer allowed to attend school, to join cultural activities, and the places to which they could be admitted were restricted. During the summer of 1940, however, the Jewish community was able to rent an area on the Vlatava riverbank which became a "Jewish swimming place," where Jewish children could swim every day and adults could swim on Sundays. On August 16, 1940 the Jews of the town were forced to relinquish their homes. On April 18, 1942 there were 909 Jews deported to concentration and death camps. The Germans blew up the town's synagogue on June 5, 1942. POSTWAR After the war, a small congregation was reestablished in Ceske Budejovice under the supervision of the district rabbi of Prague. However, this reformed community ceased to exist after 1970 due to population decline.

Cheb German: Eger Town in west Bohemia, Czech Republic The Jewish community, one of the oldest in Bohemia, dates from the 13th century and the privileges granted to the Jews of Cheb were successively endorsed by the kings of Bohemia, from Ottokar II in 1266 to Charles IV in 1347. Even in 1322, when the town was pawned to the king, the privileges granted to the Jews were explicitly included in the agreement, and reendorsed whenever the status of the town was reconfirmed. In part due to this tolerance, by the 14th century the Jewish community of Cheb was made up of nearly 3,000 people. Nonetheless, the relative peace and quiet enjoyed by the Jewish community of Cheb would not last. Almost all of the town's Jews were killed during a massacre in 1350; thereafter, the Jewish street became known as "Mordgaesschen" ("Murder Lane"). Jews began to resettle in Cheb in 1352 and, though they were forbidden from living on the former Jewish street, things were temporarily calm. In 1364 Charles IV confirmed their possession of the synagogue and cemetery. Four Jewish representatives were elected to the town council in 1386. Sigismund I also granted certain privileges to the Jews, but at the request of the townspeople he expelled the Jews from Cheb in 1430. After the expulsion, the synagogue was converted into a church. Jews were permitted to return to Cheb in 1435, but were again expelled in 1502. Though a few Jewish families continued to live in the town from the end of the 17th century until the middle of the 18th century, a significant congregation was not reestablished until after the Revolution of 1848, when the Jews under the Austro-Hungarian Empire were emancipated. Though the community quickly began to grow, anti-Semitism remained a persistent and widely-known problem, to the extent that the name "Eger" (the German name for Cheb) had become a byword for rabid anti-Semitism in the Hapsburg Empire. There were 515 Jews living n Cheb in 1921 and 491 in 1930 (1.5% of the total population), of whom 75 declared their nationality as Jewish. THE HOLOCAUST During the Sudeten Crisis of 1938 many Jews left Cheb. On September 23rd of that year the synagogue was burned down. POSTWAR A congregation of approximately 200 was organized in 1945 after the war, but dissolved in 1947. In 1962 there were ten Jewish families living in Cheb. In 1969, a memorial for Jewish victims of the Holocaust was unveiled where the Jewish cemetery, which was destroyed by the Nazis, was once located.

Chodova Plana German: Kuttenplan A town in western Bohemia, Plzen region, Czech Republic Jews lived in Chodova Plana and the surrounding area starting in 1570; by 1620 and organized community had been established. When the community was threatened with expulsion in 1681, Abraham Lichtenstadt succeeded in having the ruling annulled. A synagogue is mentioned in documents dating from 1645; later, in 1759, a new synagogue would be built in the Baroque style. Rabbi Abraham Broda served the community between 1690 and 1693. The community maintained a pinkas (a communal ledger), which was collected and written up in 1756 (it would later be published in 1910). A new cemetery was established in 1890. In 1736 there were 22 Jewish families living in Chodova Plana. By 1767 that number had risen to 32 families, who occupied 12 houses. The community established its own special prayer and fast day on the 13th of the Jewish month of Iyyar to commemorate the fact that the Jewish Quarter was spared during a major fire in 1733. The noble Haimhausen family had authority over the town. Count Cajetan of Berchem-Haimhausen (1795-1863) was unusually friendly and helpful to the Jews of Chodova Plana. In 1843 he established an endowment whose purpose was to employ a rabbi "of a modern school of thought with opinions on reform suited to our age but not in conflict with the laws of the country." In 1861 he also provided a fund to help the Jewish poor. In honor of his efforts, a memorial plaque was placed in the synagogue in honor of the Haimhausen family. In 1818 there were 35 Jewish families living in Chodova Plana. By 1910 that number had risen to 230, though the population began to drop significantly shortly thereafter; by 1932 there were only 3 Jewish families living in the town (18 lived in nearby Plana). Notable members of the Jewish community of Chodova Plana include the Hoenigsberg family, Rabbi Joseph Breslau, and the Roman Catholic convert Johann Emanyel Veith. The community of Drmoul (Duerrmaul) was closely affiliated with the community of Chodova Plana, and fell under its rabbinic authority. Drmoul included a Baroque-style synagogue build in 1801, as well as a cemetery dating back to ancient times. The Jews of Drmoul developed the spa amenities of Marienbad (Marianske Lazne), and were among the founders of the community of Marienbad. There were about 100 Jews living in Drmoul in 1896, and 48 in 1931. The vast majority of the Jews of Chodova Plana and Drmoul left during the Sudeten crisis of 1938. The synagogue was burned down by the Nazis that same year.

Dobris A town in the Central Bohemian Region, Czech Republic Dobris is located between Prague and Bavaria, in a forested area approximately 25 miles (40km) from Prague. Until 1918 the region was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire; after World War I and until 1933 it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The Jewish cemetery is owned by the Jewish community of Prague. While its borders have shrunk due to the building of a tennis and miniature golf courts as well as two cemetery reductions, it is nonetheless still able to be accessed. A few hundred tombstones, with Hebrew, German, and Czech inscriptions, are still standing. The synagogue building, which had been converted into a cultural center, is still standing. The exterior was restored to reflect its original appearance when it was a synagogue. HISTORY The first documented evidence of Jewish life at Dobris dates to 1645; additionally, a tombstone in the Jewish cemetery dates to 1650. Not much documentation about the Jews of Dobris from that time survives; the first official records of the Jews were kept by the Catholic Church, and the community itself did not maintain their own register until 1866. Though the Jews of Dobris were prohibited from buying land, others in the town permitted them to build houses on their lots. As a result, Jewish houses were spread throughout the town, and there was no designated Jewish Quarter. During the first half of the 19th century there were about 26 Jewish families living in the town. Though the community's institutions began to be established during the 18th century, the community was formally established in 1890, and included smaller communities in the surrounding area. The community regulations were formulated in 1896, which, among other things, laid out the terms of employment for a rabbi, an assistant to the rabbi, a cantor, and a melamed (teacher). Rabbi Wolf Brunner was the rabbi of the community between 1825 and 1837. He was succeeded by Rabbi Abraham Ottiz, who served from 1865 until 1866. Among the community's leaders were Marjus Lweinski (1862-1879), Jacob Rotter (1879-1892), Alfred Bondi (1902-1908), and Alexander Fraenkel (1910-1921). The first synagogue, which was built in 1777, was destroyed by a fire in 1807. It was reconstructed in 1847 and renovated again in 1868. A new synagogue with a garden was built in 1904. The community supported a chevra kaddisha. In 1867 there was also a women's charity society. During the 18th century, and at the beginning of the 19th century, most of the town's Jews worked as traveling peddlers. A local brewery and distillery that produced beer, liquor, and vinegar was owned by a member of the Jewish community. Dobris also developed a glove manufacturing trade, and many Jews were involved in the production and trade of textiles. The Eisner family also owned a publishing house. During the second half of the19th century, after the emancipation of the Jews in the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1848 and the subsequent lifting of social and economic restrictions, many members of the community became physicians, teachers, lawyers, engineers, professors, and clerks. Jews were also actively involved in local politics and were elected to the town's council and other local and regional institutions. They also demonstrated their patriotism throughout the wars that broke out during the 19th and 20th centuries. During the Napoleonic Wars of the 19th century young Jewish men from Dobris fought in the Kaiser's army. During World War I there were 69 Jewish men from Dobris who served in the army, some as officers. Six were killed in battle, and four were taken prisoner; a statue in memory of the fallen was established in the local cemetery. They also aided the many Jewish refugees from Poland that arrived in Dobris during World War I. After the war, Jews were granted cultural and national autonomy in the newly established Republic of Czechoslovakia. Jewish national consciousness began to be awakened, and a Zion Society was formed in Dobris. Emil Arenstein was elected as a member of the central committee of Zionist organizations during the First Zionist Conference of Czechoslovakia in 1919. That same year a delegate from the Jewish National List was elected to the town's council. THE HOLOCAUST Following the Munich Agreement of September 1938, about a year before the outbreak of World War II, the Republic of Czechoslovakia was disbanded. Beginning in March 1939 Bohemia and Moravia were occupied by Nazi Germany and became a protectorate of the Third Reich, beginning a period of discrimination and violence against the Jews remaining in these regions. During a series of pogroms carried out by local fascists, the new synagogue was damaged. By the end of 1942 most of the Jews remaining in the protectorate had been concentrated in the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were deported to concentration and death camps, mostly in Poland, where most were killed. Before the Jews of Dobris were deported to the Terezin Ghetto, 458 documents and 176 ritual objects belonging to the community were transferred to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR Only 8 Jews from Dobris, including Petr Herrman, survived the war. Jewish life in the town was not revived. The building that once housed the new synagogue was converted into a cultural center that hosted concerts and exhibitions. The old synagogue was destroyed in 1960.

Dvur Kralove nad Labem German: Koeniginhof an der Elbe A town in the Hradec Kralove Region, in the Labe (Elbe) river valley, Eastern Bohemia, Czech Republic Until 1918 the region was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire; after World War I and until 1933 it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The Torah scroll from Dvur Kralove, which had been sent from the community to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague during World War II, was acquired by Temple Sholom of Cedar Grove, NJ, in 1975 where it has remained since. In 2008 Temple Sholom and Dvur Kralove worked together to erect the Monument to the Murdered Jewish Citizens of Dvur Kralove nad Labem where the town's synagogue once stood. One of the town's best-known attractions in Dvur Kralove is the zoo, which was originally part of a private park owned by Jewish factory owner Richard Neumann. The Nazis seized his land, the Soviets subsequently nationalized it, and the zoo was opened to the public in 1946. The area where the Jewish cemetery was once located was destroyed during 1959-1960. The tombstones were removed, and the walls and buildings were demolished. The site is currently a park containing fragments of tombstones, as well as a memorial stone. HISTORY As a royal town, Dvur Kralove took advantage of its right to forbid Jewish settlement within its borders ("Privilegium de non Tolerandis Judaeis"). Jews are first mentioned in the town in 1838, and free Jewish settlement within Dvur Kralove became possible only after Austro-Hungarian Jewry was emancipated in 1848 and residence restrictions were lifted. The first Jews who came to live in Dvur Kralove were from the neighboring towns of Velka and Horice, where Jews had been living since the 17th century. A Jewish community, consisting of 11 men and 12 women, was organized in 1873 as a cultural society. They dedicated a prayer room in a rented house, where they also opened a school and hired a teacher. A cemetery was founded in 1883; until then, the Jews of Dvur Kralove were buried in Velka or Horice. The synagogue was established in 1891. The first Jews to arrive in Dvur Kralove were merchants who were permitted to sell salt and tobacco. Later the Jews developed a local textile industry, and many became involved in the production, dying, and printing of cloth. By 1861 two Jews had set up a small factory for processing wool, which eventually grew and employed 150 workers. Jews also established small workshops for making jewelry and polishing pearls. The Jewish community was also well-integrated into the social and cultural life of the town. Three of the teachers in the municipal high school were Jewish. Dr. Ernest Back and the manufacturer Otto Schlein supported municipal institutions for children and youth. Otto Mayer was the chairman of the Democratic German Culture Party. The Jewish population increased rapidly at the end of the 19th century. The population peaked in 1910, with 232 people (2.2% of the total population). Rabbis of the community included Rabbi Emanuel Polak (1898-1923), Rabbi Dr. Gustav Ziecher (1924-1928), Rabbi Dr. Moritz Mandel (1929-1934), and Rabbi Dr. Emil Friedman (1934-1939). The leaders of the community included Dr. Ernest Back, Ludwig Krug, Rudolf Kohn, and Walter Pick. After World War I the community's population declined significantly, a result of both emigration and assimilation. In 1927 there were only 6 school-age children in the community. While many of the Jews in Dvur Kralove were proponents of German culture, some grew up with Czech culture; after the establishment of the Republic of Czechoslovakia in 1918, more Jews declared themselves as Czech Nationals. A Jewish manufacturer who supported the Czechs formed a welfare organization and donated money in order to repair the high school. In 1930 the municipality erected a statue in honor of the Jewish sculptor and art professor Otto Gutfreund, a native of the town. Additionally, during the interwar period the community became proponents of Jewish nationalism. Before the 15th Zionist Congress the Jews of Dvur Kralove purchased membership and voting rights. For the 1930 census 35 of the 182 Jews (19.3%) declared their nationality as Jewish. In 1939, of the 106 Jews working in the town, 24 were homeowners. Among those who declared their profession, twenty-one worked as merchants, 14 as craftsmen, 14 as clearks, 7 as managers in banks and factories, 7 as engineers and technicians, 4 as physicians, 3 as lawyers, and one as a teacher. THE HOLOCAUST Following the Munich Agreement of 1938 the Republic of Czechoslovakia was dissolved. The Sudeten region was annexed to Germany, and some Jews escaping from the area arrived in Dvur Kralove. In March of 1939 the regions of Bohemia and Moravia became part of the protectorate of the Third Reich, beginning a period of discrimination and violence against the Jews of the region. Ninety-two Jews from Dvur Kralove were deported on December 17, 1942 via the city of Hradec Kralove, to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. The rest of the Jews were deported shortly thereafter. From Terezin they were sent to concentration and death camps, mainly in Poland, where most were killed. Before the deportations, 110 ritual objects belonging to the community of Dvur Kralove, including a Torah scroll, were transferred to the Jewish Museum in Prague. Jews did not return to Dvur Kralove after the war. The synagogue, which was not destroyed during the war, was used as an archive before being demolished in 1966 by Soviet authorities to make room for a highway. The cemetery was also destroyed in 1959. For a long time the only remaining trace of Jewish life in the town was a memorial plaque at the local high school for the teachers who died between 1938 and 1945.

Golcuv Jenikov German: Goltsch-Jenikau A town in the Havlickuv Brod District, Vysocina Region, Czech Republic In May, 2012, a Torah scroll from Golcuv Jenikov, which had been transferred to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague during World War II, was acquired by the Gishrei Shalom Jewish Congregation in Southington, Connecticut. Most of Golcuv Jenikov's Jewish Quarter has survived. Remains of the mikvah (ritual bath) can be found in the basement of the former school. Other formerly Jewish homes that have remained standing include the former rabbi's house, as well as a prayer room. Additionally, the synagogue is still standing in the center of the Jewish Quarter. After the war it was converted into a Hussite Church and a Czech Brethren's Protestant Church. Since 1977 it has been under the auspices of the Jewish Museum in Prague. The Jewish cemetery contains over 1,000 tombstones, as well as a mortuary and ceremony hall. It is owned and maintained by the Jewish community of Prague. HISTORY Jews most probably settled in Golcuv Jenikov at the end of the 16th century. Documents indicate that by 1659 there was a synagogue in the town, which would be refurbished in 1806 and 1870. The community maintained a Jewish school, in which the language of instruction was German, from 1797 until 1907. Rabbi Aaron Kornfeld, the last rosh yeshiva of Bohemia, lived in Golcuv Jenikov; Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise was among the students of his yeshiva and Sir Moses Montefiore visited the yeshiva in 1842. Other notable figures who were born or lived in the town include the rabbis Jonathan HaLevi Altar and Meir HaLevi Altar. In 1724 there were 28 Jewish families living in Golcuv Jenikov and in 1847 there were 613 Jews living in the town (27.8% of the total population). By 1931 that number had dropped to 79 (3.9%) as Jews throughout the region sought opportunities in larger towns and cities. The nearby community of Habry (Habern) had a Jewish community that was founded during the 14th century and which was incorporated into the Jewish community of Golcuv Jenikov in 1898. There were 21 Jewish families living in Habry in 1724 and 120 families living in the town in 1848. By 1893 there were 143 Jews living in Habry, and 79 people living in the town in 1930. The members of the community who had not left by 1942 were deported to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto, from which they were sent to concentration and death camps. Ritual objects from the synagogue, including a Torah scroll, were transferred to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague.

Habry German: Habern A town in the Havlickuv Brod District, Czech Republic Habry is located on the main highway between Prague and Vienna, approximately 4 miles (7km) from the town of Golcuv Jenikov. Until 1918 the region was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Between the two World Wars, and from the end of World War II until 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The Jewish cemetery of Habry is owned by the Jewish community of Prague. Many of the tombstones are broken or not in their original locations. The cemetery also includes the remains of the pre-burial house. HISTORY A few "protected Jews" (those who were not subject to residence restrictions) had lived in Habry since the 14th century. A Jewish cemetery was established around the year 1650; the community rented the land for the cemetery until 1746, when they were granted ownership of it. The community had its own chevra kaddisha. A community register was kept at Harby beginning in the year 1770. The synagogue was built in 1825 and renovated in 1893. The interior furniture for the synagogue was donated by Karl Lustig. An elementary Jewish school had three classes and operated until 1870. The language of instruction was German. As for the adults, at first most of the Jews of Habry were merchants and craftsmen. After the emancipation in 1848 more began working as professionals, and to take part in the public and political life of the town. In 1848 there were about 120 Jewish families living in Habry. That year Jews throughout the Austro-Hungarian Empire were granted full civil rights and residence restrictions were lifted. This prompted Jews throughout the empire to move to bigger towns and cities, seeking greater educational and economic opportunities. Habry was no exception to this trend. In 1893 there were 143 Jews living in Habry, but in 1921 there were only 74 Jews registered in the community. By the 1930s only 28 Jews remained in Habry. Among the rabbis of Harby were Rabbi Joseph Kohn (1799-1808), Rabbi Tobias Gruenhut (1813-1840), Rabbi Zechariah Spitz (1858-1884) and Rabbi Alois Taussig (1913-1920). Among the leaders of the community were Dr. Jacob Kraus (1870-1880), Dr. Aaron Lengsfeld (1880-1913), Karl Lustig (1913-1923), Dr. Ignaz Klauber (1923-1929), and again Karl Lustig, who served until the 1930s. During World War I, 4 members of the community were killed in battle. THE HOLOCAUST The Republic of Czechoslovakia was dissolved after the Munich Agreement of September 1938. In 1939 the regions of Bohemia and Moravia became protectorates of the German Third Reich, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the region's Jews. By the end of 1942 most of the Jews of the region were concentrated in Terezin (Theresienstadt), from which they were deported to concentration and death camps. POSTWAR Jewish life was not renewed in Habry after the war. The synagogue building was converted into a movie theater.

Hermanuv Mestec German: Hermann Mestetz, Hermannstadtl A town in the Pardubice Region, Chrudim District, Czech Republic Both the synagogue and Jewish cemetery of Hermanuv Mestec have been declared national cultural monuments. The synagogue building was restored in 2001, and is part of a cultural center; the Jewish school was also reconstructed as part of the restoration and houses the Cyrany Gallery. The synagogue's stained glass windows, as well as an Ark crowned by the Ten Commandments, can be viewed. In 2008, the restored synagogue hosted a Simchat Torah celebration. The Jewish cemetery contains over 1,000 tombstones. It is owned by the Jewish community of Prague, and maintained by a local caretaker. A Torah scroll sent from Hermanuv Mestec to the Jewish Museum in Prague during World War II was later sent to Temple Sinai in Wellington, New Zealand. HISTORY Jews began settling in Hermanuv Mestec towards the end of the 15th century; ten Jewish families are mentioned in a document dating from 1570. Existing acts and rulings of the community's chevra kaddisha date from 1643, and the first cemetery expansion is recorded in 1667. In 1686 a local nobleman invited Jews to settle in houses that formerly belonged to Christians who had died of the plague. By the end of the 19th century the town became a center for manufacturing shoes, thanks to the presence of several successful Jewish businesses. Noteworthy community rabbis include Moses Simchah Bumsla, and Moses Bloch. In 1724 there were 63 Jewish families living in Hermanuv Mestec; by 1826 there were 496 Jews living in the town. The population grew to 721 Jews in 1859, and 434 (9.3% of the total population) in 1880. In 1893 there were 300 Jews living in Hermanuv Mestec itself and a total of 1,085 in the town and the surrounding villages. By 1921 the Jewish population of Hermanuv Mestec had declined to 87, largely as a result of emigration. In 1942 the remaining Jews of Hermanuv Mestec were deported to Auschwitz via Terezin (Theresienstadt). Before the deportation, a number of ritual objects from the community were sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. After World War II the synagogue was used as a church, and then as a warehouse.

Holesov German: Holleschau A town in the Zlin Region, the westernmost part of the Carpathian Mountains, Czech Republic Holesov was originally a village, and was first mentioned in 1030 under the name Gulesi an der Ruza. The village was destroyed in 1241 by the Mongols but rebuilt; in 1271 it was renamed Holesov and given the status of town. Until 1918 the region was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire; between the two World Wars, and between the end of World War II and 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The Old Synagogue, more commonly known as the Sach Synagogue, is the only Polish-style synagogues to have been preserved; indeed, the synagogue is remarkably beautiful. The women's section now houses a museum exhibit titled "Moravia and the Jews." Additionally, of the 103 houses that once stood at the Jewish Quarter 45 have been preserved, including what was once the school, a beit midrash, and a hospital. The Jewish cemetery, containing over 1,500 graves, can still be visited. Of particular note is the tomb of Rabbi Shabbetai ben Meir HaCohen, better known as the Sach, whose grave is visited by Jews from all over the world. A house of mourning in the cemetery also contains a memorial which lists the names of the 253 Jews from Holesov who were killed during the Holocaust. The town hosts an annual festival called Jewish Culture Week during the month of August. HISTORY There are records of Jews living in Holesov dating from 1391, but a sustained community was apparently only established after 1454, when the Jews of the free royal town of Olomouc were expelled and came to Holesov. At that time the region was ruled by the Hussites (members of the revolutionary Czech national and social movement, named after its founder Jan Hus), and the Jews were accepted and allowed to live there. The community would also later receive Jews who were expelled from Uherske Hradiste in 1514. In 1540 most of the town's houses were destroyed by a fire, which also destroyed documents recording Jewish life in the community. In 1622 the town was occupied by the Hungarian army, followed in 1643 by the Swedish army. At that point the Jews were living in the town under the protection of local nobles. They paid special protection taxes, but they were exempt from other local taxes and the Christian locals were not allowed to harass them. However, ownership of the town often changed hands, and each time the Jews were required to renew their residence rights. A letter of rights that was granted to the Jews of Holesov in 1651 allowed them to build 5 homes inside the town and an additional 41 homes near it, a small beit midrash, a community house, a hospital, and a mikvah. They were also allowed to establish a cemetery, to live openly as Jews, and to choose their own leaders. The old synagogue, also known as the Sach Synagogue, was built in 1560 in Renaissance style. Jewish immigrants from Poland had a large role in renovating the synagogue in 1737, giving it a unique style. A convention of representatives of the Jews of Moravia was held in Holesov in 1653, where the 311 regulations that established the Jews of Moravia as an autonomous body were expanded. During the 17th and 18th centuries most of the Jews of Holesov worked as merchants, dealing in cloth, skins, wool, and cotton. Others were merchants who dealt in poultry and geese. The Jewish craftsmen worked mostly as tailors and tanners. Some of the Jewish merchants of Holesov participated in the larger fairs of Breslau and Leipzig. During the second half of the 17th century, however, the community experienced a number of economic hardships. During the war with Prussia, in 1742, Queen Maria Theresa imposed heavy taxes on the Jews in anticipation of eventually expelling them from Moravia, which resulted in the community of Holesov, which at that time had a population of 1,500, going into debt. As a result, the synagogue building and the silver ornaments within it were seized, and the community's leaders were jailed. Shortly thereafter, in 1745, a fire broke out and about a third of the Jewish Quarter was destroyed. Years later the community was still struggling to repay its debts. Additionally, residence restrictions were put into place, limiting the number of Jews who could live in Holesov. As a result, in 1720 a number of Jews from Holesov founded the community of Liptovsky Milulas; nonetheless, this community was still under the auspices of the community in Holesov and High Holiday services for both communities were held in Holesov. In 1748 the Jewish population of Holesov was 1,032 (194 families), who occupied 49 of the town's houses. In 1831 the population rose to 1,316. By 1869 Holesov's Jewish population was 1,764 (about 25% of the total population). After the emancipation of Austro-Hungarian Jews in 1848, and the subsequent lifting of economic and residence restrictions, Jews began to expand their economic activities. A furniture factory and a distillery were established in Holesov, both by Jews. Additionally, the community was granted the status of a political community with municipal autonomy. The Jewish Quarter functioned independently, with its own mayor-like figure, a police force, firefighters, and night watchmen. In 1883 the religious community was separated from the political community, and in 1919 the Jewish part of town was united with the Christian town. A new synagogue was built in Holesov in 1893, which also contained a beit midrash. The first rabbi to serve the community was Rabbi Menahem Mendel, who worked in Holsesov during the first half of the 17th century. The famous Rabbi Shabbetai, ben Meir HaCohen, served between 1662 and 1668. Other notable figures from Holesov include the historian Gershon Wolf and Rabbi Johanan ben Isaac, who served as the Ashkenazi rabbi of London at the beginning of the 18th century. Jewish life in Holesov was not always easy. In 1682 the local bishop prohibited the town's Jews from being present in the town square during Christian processions. However, in 1774 a group of Catholic clergy protected a Jewish family from a mob that had formed after a Christian woman was killed in the family's home. In 1899, following a dispute between Czechs and Germans, a pogrom broke out in the Jewish Quarter that lasted three days; the Czechs accused the Jews of spreading German culture. In the end, the military was required to intervene in order to quell the riots, and the remained guarding the Jews and their property for six months. In spite of this protection, however, many Jews left the town and in 1914 the Jewish population in Holesov dropped to 1,200. On December 4, 1918, about 200 armed men attacked the local Jews, killing two Jewish soldiers who had recently returned from the war, and looted Jewish homes and shops. This pogrom also caused many Jews to leave; by 1930 there were only 273 Jews remaining in Holesov, 4% of the town's total population. The Jews who remained in the town after the establishment of the Republic of Czechoslovakia became active in Jewish politics, as well as in the political life of the town. In 1919 three delegates from the Jewish party were elected to the town's council. Zionism became influential, and in 1926 the community purchased membership and voting rights to the Zionist Congress. THE HOLOCAUST The Munich Agreement of September 1938 dissolved the Republic of Czechoslovakia and gave the Sudeten Region to Germany. By March, 1939 the region of Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the Jews living there. By the end of 1942 most of the Jews in the protectorate had been concentrated in Terezin (Theresienstadt), before being deported to concentration and death camps, where most were killed. Approximately 200 Jewish families from Holesov and the surrounding area were deported. Before their deportation 282 ritual objects, 274 books, and 5,011 documents from the community were transferred to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. The New Synagogue was destroyed. POSTWAR Survivors from the community returned to the town after the war, and the community became affiliated with the community of Kyjob. In 1948 there were 37 Jews living in Holesov, 23 of whom were registered officially as part of the community. In 1960 the Jewish Quarter was repaired, and a museum documenting the life of the Jews of Moravia was established on the second floor of the old synagogue. The community repaired and cleaned the cemetery, which included the grave of Rabbi Shabbetai ben Meir HaCohen, and added a memorial plaque to the victims of the Holocaust. It was also during the 1960s that the community ceased to be autonomous, and was merged with the Jewish community of Brno.

Horazdovice German: Horazdowitz A town in the Plzen Region, Czech Republic Horazdovice was founded at the end of the 13th century. Until 1918 the region was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Between the two World Wars, and between the end of World War II and 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. Ten Torah scrolls were transferred from Horazdovice to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague during World War II. One is displayed in the foyer of Temple Emanuel of Greater New Haven, Connecticut. Another Torah from Horazdovice has been on permanent loan to Westminster Synagogue in London since 1968. The other Torah scrolls from Horazdovice can be found in Congregation Ezrath Israel in Ellenville, New York, Park Avenue Synagogue in Manhattan, Temple Sinai of Dresher in Dresher, Pennsylvania, Temple Kol Emeth in Palo Alto, California, Temple Beth Ora in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, B'nai Israel Congregation in Wilmington, South Carolina, the Young Israel of Hollywood in Hollywood, Florida, and the Ministry of Religious Affairs in Jerusalem, Israel. The synagogue in Slatina (one of the communities affiliated with Horazdovice) was renovated in 1983 and has been registered as a national monument since 1988. Over 100 tombstones in the cemetery of Slatina have been preserved; the oldest legible tombstone dates to the 18th century. HISTORY It is likely that Jews lived in Horazdovice since the town's founding, but records of their presence in the town date from the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). In 1619 the Jews were granted land for a cemetery in the eastern part of the town. At that time only 10 Jewish families were permitted to live in the town. A synagogue was built on the Jewish Street, which was located near the cemetery. The community employed a cantor, who also served as a teacher. By 1670 there was a Talmud Torah, located in one of the Jewish houses. Later, when the noble families of Mansfeld and Lewinstein were in charge of the town, some of the laws that discriminated against the Jews were abolished; as a result, in 1779 there were 18 Jewish families living in Horazdovice. The Thirty Years' War and its aftermath resulted in difficult economic times for the Jews of Horazdice. Heavy taxes were imposed on them, and there were economic restrictions preventing them from taking full advantage of local opportunities. Nonetheless, Jewish merchants were able to trade in grain, and from 1595 they also traded in cattle. Much later, after the emancipation of Austro-Hungarian Jews in 1848, the Jews of the region founded a distillery as well as factories for producing matches, paper, wool, and starch. In fact, the starch factory was so successful that it prompted potato farmers across Bohemia to form an agricultural cooperative, which bought the factory in 1912. The factory still exists, under the name Lyckeby Amylex. Herman Katz founded one of the largest and most successful grocery stores in southern Bohemia 1859; in 1907 his son, Otto, also founded a similarly successful grocery store. Another successful business was ironworks; Herman Katz's brother, Eduard, founded an ironworks shop, and Eduard Steiner also purchased a shop in 1907. In 1919 he purchased Vienna's Riesenrad Ferris wheel. In 1850 a Jewish school was opened, in which the language of instruction was German—only one hour per day was devoted to studying the Czech language. In 1885, however, after an initiative led by the president of the community and owner of the Muenz Brothers distillery, Eduard Muenz, Czech was adopted as the language of instruction in the school, as well as the language of business for all of the community's institutions. The community also resolved that the rabbi's sermons would be delivered in Czech. Among the community's institutions at that time was a society for the promotion of the Czech language and culture. During the second half of the 19th century a new cemetery was consecrated and graves from the old cemetery were transferred to the new one. A chevra kaddisha also served the community. The synagogue also renovated in 1901, and electric lighting was installed. Among the rabbis of the community were Rabbi B. Friedman, who was also an inventor who held various patents (including one about the automatic joining of railway trucks), and Rabbi Martin Friedman, who served from 1887 until 1931. In 1848, Jews throughout the Austro-Hungarian Empire were emancipated and the residence restrictions that they had been subject to were lifted. Jews began moving to larger towns and cities in search of greater economic and educational opportunities. This trend, coupled with the railroad that was built connecting Horazdovice to the railway system during this same period, resulted in a population decline as members of the Jewish community of Horazdovice began to move elsewhere. By 1893 Jews from 12 communities in nearby villages were absorbed into the shrinking community of Horazdovice (see below for information on two of these communities). After the establishment of the Republic of Czechoslovakia in 1918, and the recognition of Jews as a national minority, Zionism became popular in Horazdovice. In 1926 the Jews of Horazdovice purchased membership and voting rights before the elections to the 15th Zionist Congress. In 1921 there were 187 Jews living in the community. By 1930 that number had dropped to 126. COMMUNITIES AFFILIATED WITH HORAZDOVICE Slatina was the largest and most important community that was absorbed into Horazdovice. Jews most probably began living there at the end of the 16th century and at the beginning of the 17th century it became the central community for the Jews in the area. The Jewish Quarter consisted of approximately 10 houses and was located in the northern part of the village. A new synagogue built in 1850 replaced the former wooden synagogue; this new synagogue was renovated in 1893. A wing of the synagogue included a Talmud Torah, a kosher butcher, and a matzah factory. The rabbi lived in an apartment on the upper floor. This synagogue was in use until 1912; during World War I Jewish refugees from Poland were housed in the synagogue, and after 1919 the building was used to store grain. A cemetery was consecrated in 1723, though Jews had been buried at the site for years. The last burial took place in 1937. In 1724 there were 6 Jewish families (27 people) living n Slatina). Between 1858 and 1868 there were 33 families living in the village, and in 1913 only four Jewish families were living in the village. The last Jew living in Slatina was killed during World War I. Rabi was another community in the area that was incorporated into Horazdice. The community included a school and a prayer house. The rabbi of the Prachen Region also lived in Rabi. THE HOLOCAUST Following the Munich Agreement of September, 1938, the Republic of Czechoslovakia was dissolved. About half a year later, the Germans occupied the regions of Bohemia and Moravia, which became protectorates of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the areas' Jews. Beginning at the end of 1941 the Jews were concentrated in the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were deported to a series of concentration and death camps, where most were killed. Before their expulsion to Terezin, 286 documents and 130 ritual objects from the community of Horazdovice were transferred to the Central Jewish Museum of Prague. Of the nearly 100 Jews who were taken from Horazdovice, only 7 survived. None returned to the town after the war. POSTWAR The synagogue building in Horazdovice was demolished in 1980, while that of Slatina was renovated in 1983. The section of Slatina's synagogue that once housed the Talmud Torah, kosher butcher, and matzah factory was converted into a private home as well as a memorial hall and exhibition about the history of the local Jews.

Horepnik German: Horschepnic, Haartlings A village in the Pelhrimov District, Czech Republic Horepnik is located 50 miles (80km) southeast of Prague. Until 1918 the region was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Between the two World Wars, and between the end of World War II and 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. Over 200 headstones have survived and remain standing in the Jewish cemetery, which can be accessed by visitors. HISTORY There was a Jewish community in Horepnik by the first third of the 17th century and by 1723 Twenty-one Jewish families were recorded as living in the village. An established community was formed by 25 Jewish families during the middle of the 19th century. A Jewish Quarter, which held 20 homes, was located between the town square and the bridge over the River Trnavka. A cemetery was consecrated at the beginning of the 17th century; the oldest tombstones date to 1649, but there were probably older graves. The synagogue was built in 1800, and the community also had a Jewish school. After the emancipation of Jews throughout the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1848, and the subsequent removal of economic and residence restrictions, Jews began moving to larger towns and cities in search of new economic and educational opportunities. Jewish populations in communities such as Horepnik declined. By 1930 there were only 12 Jews remaining in Horepnik. THE HOLOCAUST After the Munich Agreement of September 1938 the Republic of Czechoslovakia was dissolved. In March 1939 the region of Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the region's Jews. By 1943 most Czech Jews had been sent to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto, after which they were deported to concentration and death camps where most were killed.

Horni Cerekev German: Ober Zerekwe, Lobeskirchen A town in the Pelhrimov District, Czech Republic Horni Cerekev is located approximately 3 miles (5km) from Batelov, near the border with Moravia. Until 1918 the region was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Between the two World Wars, and from the end of World War II until 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The Jewish cemetery has about 130 tombstones, dating from the 18th to the 20th century and includes a mortuary. HISTORY It is unclear when, exactly, Jews first began to settle in Horni Cerekev, but a Jewish cemetery was established by the 18th century. A synagogue was built later, in 1867. Following the emancipation of Jews throughout the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the subsequent lifting of economic and residence restrictions, many Jews began moving to larger towns and cities, in search of greater educational and economic opportunities. As a result, communities such as Horni Cerekev saw their populations decline. By 1922 only 40 Jews remained in the town. THE HOLOCAUST The Republic of Czechoslovakia was dissolved following the Munich Agreement of September 1938. A few months later, in March 1939, the region of Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of violence and discrimination against the region's Jews. Beginning in 1941 the Jews of the protectorate were concentrated in Terezin (Theresienstadt), before being deported to concentration and death camps. Before being sent to Terezin, 48 ritual objects from Horni Cerekev were transferred to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR The synagogue building was demolished by Czech authorities in 1951.

Hostoun German: Hostaun A village in the Kladno District, Central Bohemian Region, Czech Republic Houston is located approximately 4 miles (7km) southeast of the district town of Kladno. Until 1918 the region was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Between the two World Wars, and between the end of World War II and 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The Prague Jewish community owns the cemetery in Hostoun and funds its maintenance. A number of tombstones are still standing, and are written in Hebrew, Czech, and German. HISTORY The Jewish community of Hostoun, which was most probably established during the first half of the 16th century, also incorporated Jews from 21 small villages in the area. The first official record of a Jewish presence in the village dates to 1792. Among the rabbis of the community were Rabbi Nathaniel of Hostoun, who served at the end of the 18th century, Rabbi Yehezkel Landau, Rabbi Elazar Flekles, and Rabbi Joseph (who served around 1817). A synagogue was built in Hostoun during the first half of the 19th century. The community also included a community house, a school in which the language of instruction was German, and a cemetery. A new cemetery was consecrated in 1856. The community was also served by a chevra kaddisha. In 1852 there were 64 Jewish families living in the village, and Rabbi Dr. M. Asher served the community. In 1921 there were 21 Jews living in Hostoun. At that point, the Jews of Hostoun primarily spoke Czech. The community's leader was Joseph Kohn, and the rabbi was Max Schwartz. In 1930 there were only 35 Jews remaining in Hostoun, 5 of whom declared their nationality as Jewish. THE HOLOCAUST The Munich Agreement of September 1938 resulted in the dissolution of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. On March 15, 1939, the region of Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the region's Jews. Beginning in 1941 the Germans began to concentrate the Jews of the protectorate in the Terezin (Teresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were deported to concentration and death camps.

Hradec Kralove German: Koenigraetz A city in the Hradec Kralove Region of Bohemia Hradec Kralove was established by King Premysl Otakar II in 1225 at the convergence of the Labe and Orlica Rivers. It became a crossroads for the trade routes between Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia to the capital in Prague. Until 1918 the region was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Between the two World Wars, and between the end of World War II and 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The Jewish cemetery, which includes a pre-burial house, is owned by the Jewish community of Prague. Most of the tombstones have been damaged, and some have been moved from the cemetery to a museum. The cemetery has also been vandalized a number of times throughout the years. HISTORY There are records of Jews living in the region from 1052; Jews lived in Hradec Kralove itself from the city's founding. There was a Jewish Quarter in the city that local residents called "Platea Judeorum," "The Jewish Hill," which was separated from the central square of the town by an iron gate that was locked every evening. At the beginning of the 15th century there were never more than 10 Jewish families living in the city and they were expelled several times between the years 1454 and 1521. Beginning in 1551 they were compelled to wear special clothes that would identify them as Jews. In 1628 the king allowed only a small number of privileged families, including that of David Tachovsky and the rabbi appointed by the authorities, the right to live in Hradec Kralove. These families were subsequently expelled in 1652. A deist sect that refused to classify themselves as Jews or Christians, and instead referred to themselves as Abrahamites, became active in the area in 1742. They were led by a man named Mendel from the community of Novy Bydzov. This sect was persecuted (they would eventually be excluded from Emperor Joseph II's edict of toleration in 1781) and in 1750 many of them, including Mendel, were tortured and executed at Hradec Kralove. In 1742 one Jewish person was given permission to trade in the annual fair, while another worked as a distiller. Several more Jewish merchants were given permission to trade in the city in 1774. In 1808 Joseph Winternitz founded a distillery in Hradec Kralove to produce alcoholic liquors. He was well known, both among Jews and non-Jews, as a generous philanthropist. Philip Levy was a tobacco dealer in the area during the same period. Many Jewish merchants arrived at Hradec Kralove at the beginning of the 19th century and a community was organized in 1860; a community register started to be kept in 1864. At that time most Jews lived in the area around the city; even by 1873 only 8 Jews lived in Hradec Kralove itself. In 1877 the community bought land for a cemetery. In 1890 the officers of the community were elected, and shortly thereafter, in 1896, the community's regulations were approved by the authorities. The community's institutions included a chevra kaddisha, a women's organization, and a society that assisted both Jewish students and the poor. A large synagogue was built in 1905. In 1921 there were 314 Jews living in Hradec Kralove. The president of the community at that time was Dr. Joseph Taussik, and the secretary was Oscar Eisner. During the interwar period Jews were recognized as a national minority, and a significant number of Jews in Hradec Kralove became involved with Jewish nationalism. In 1926 the Jews of Hradec Kralove purchased membership and voting rights to the Zionist conference, and a number voted in the 1937 elections to the 20th Zionist Congress. A branch of the Maccabi youth movement was active in the city. By 1930 about 10% of the Jews of Hradec Kralove and the surrounding area declared their nationality as Jewish. In 1931 when the Jewish Party of Czechoslovakia was founded, Dr. Milan Kolman from Hradec Kralove was elected to the party's central committee; Dr. Kolman, along with Hermann Stapler, was a delegate to the last regional conference of the Zionist Federation. In 1930 there were 425 Jews living in Hradec Kralove (2.39% of the total population). THE HOLOCAUST After the Munich Agreement of September 1938 the Republic of Czechoslovakia was dissolved. The Sudeten Region was annexed to Nazi Germany, and many Jews who escaped from Sudetenland found refuge in Hradec Kralove. This was during a period of rising anti-Semitism; attempts by refugees to open shops in the town led to anti-Jewish responses. Anti-Semitic graffiti was left on the walls of the synagogue and anti-Semitic leaflets were circulated throughout the city. In March 1939 the Germans entered the region of Bohemia and Moravia, which became protectorates of Nazi Germany. This ushered in a period of official discrimination and violence against the area's Jews; Jews were harassed by Czech anti-Semites, particularly the youth. By 1941 approximately 80 members of the community, of the 1,554 Jews living in the city, converted to Christianity, in an attempt to save themselves. Between May 28 and June 2, 1942, the Jews of Hradec Kralove were ordered to register for transfer. On December 17 and December 21, 1942, 1,198 Jews from the city were sent to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto; the first of these transports also included Jews from smaller communities in the area, including Dvur Kralove, Zamberg, Horice, Nachod, Jaromer, and Josefov. From Terezin they were transferred to concentration and death camps, where most were killed. The only Jews remaining in Hradec Kralove were those who were either married to Christians, or who were half-Jewish. Before the Jews of Hradec Kralove were sent to Terezin, 1,265 documents, 20 books, and 125 ritual objects from the community were transferred to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR Only 106 Jews from the region survived the war, 16 of whom were from Hradec Kralove. Some Jews came to Hradec Kralove after the war; on April 30, 1945 there were 190 Jews recorded as living in the city. A monument in memory of the victims of the Holocaust was erected, inscribed with the names of 1,376 of the city's dead. By the 1950s most Jews had left Hradec Kralove. The synagogue building was converted into a municipal library. During Israel's War of Independence in 1948 the first aircraft used by the Israeli Air Force were flown from the airfield near Hradec Kralove. In 1995 the municipality of Hradec Kralove granted the Israeli businessman Abraham Har-Shalom honorary citizenship of the city.

Hranice In Jewish sources: Hrainitz, Rainitz German: Weisskirchen, Maerisch Weisskirchen A town in Moravia, Czech Republic Hranice is sometimes informally referred to as "Hranice na Morave," in order to distinguish it from other places with the same name. Until 1918 Hranice and the region were part of the Austrian monarchy. Between the two World Wars, and during the postwar communist era, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The Jewish cemetery is still standing, though not all of the gravestones have remained in their original locations; the cemetery has been vandalized in the past, and some tombstones were removed and sent to a museum. HISTORY The first Jews at Hranice were those who arrived for market days and subsequently decided to settle under the protection of the nobles of the House of Pernstein (1475-1553). They were followed by Jewish cattle merchants from Romania and Poland. The town's records first mention Jews in 1644. During the middle of the 17th century, following the Chmielnicki Pogroms, many Jewish refugees arrived at Hranice from Poland. In 1753 there were 115 Jewish families living in the town. The population rose and by 1788 there were 120 Jewish families in Hranice. In addition to families, there were also a number of single Jews living in Hranice who could not legally marry because of the Families Law, which permitted only the firstborn sons in Jewish families to marry. The Jewish community functioned independently from the rest of the town. There was a Jewish street, consisting of a row of houses along the wall on the west side of the town, a few houses on Teplice Street, as well as houses on one other street. The old synagogue stood at the corner of the Jewish Street, opposite the town square. In 1864 the old synagogue was demolished and replaced by a new synagogue. The cemetery was consecrated following the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) and also served the neighboring communities, particularly that of Neu Titschein (Slovak: Novy Jicin); Julius Freud, the brother of Sigmund Freud, would later be buried in the cemetery. A chevra kaddisha would be formed much later, in 1875, and a women's society was established in 1896. A Jewish school was opened around 1770. It was managed alternately by Jewish and non-Jewish teachers, and the language of instruction was German. In 1865, by which time the school was an elementary Hebrew-German school, two classes were added. In 1876 a crafts class was added for girls, and beginning in 1888 they were taught Czech twice a week. The school closed in 1919, at which point the Jewish students attended the regular schools in the town. Beginning around 1770, Hranice had its own rabbis serving the community. The community's first rabbi was Menachem Mendel of Leipnik. Rabbi Dr. Jacob Rabinowitz, a professor of Oriental studies, philosophy, and history, was appointed in 1894 and served well into the 1930s. He published articles, novels, and plays that were printed in the German and Austrian press. Until the emancipation of Jews throughout the Austrian Empire in 1848, the community was led by what was known as "judges" and "jurors." Only one, Ezechias Kafka, who led the community at the beginning of the 19th century, is known by name. After 1848 the Jewish Quarter was administered by Jewish mayors, who were also the leaders of the communities. These Jewish mayors included Sigmund Wolf, Abraham Wolf, Dr. Wilhelm Wolf, Noe Stross, Shimon Stross, Salomon Schlesinger, Adolf B. Adler, and Adolf Schlesinger. The community reached its population peak in 1857, when it had 802 members. During the second half of the 19th century, however, after the emancipation and the subsequent lifting of residence restrictions, Jews throughout the region began moving to larger towns and cities seeking newer and more varied educational and economic opportunities. The community of Hranice, like others in the region, began to decline in numbers. In 1885 the Jewish political organization was separated from the religious community. In 1919 the political community was abolished, and the Jewish town was integrated into the Christian town. Karl Baron and Sigmund Polack were the Jewish community's representatives to the town's council. Among the notable figures born in Hranice are the journalist, poet, and playwright Jacob Julius David (1859-1906), the composer Max Wolf, Dr. Isidor Winger, who published the Jewish Encyclopedia in New York, and Aaron Chorin, the major advocate of Reform Judaism in Hungary. Following the emancipation, the Jews became more integrated economically, professionally, and socially. Rather than working strictly as merchants and craftsmen, Jews were also becoming professionals such as physicians and academics. Jews also began to be involved in Zionism, particularly after being recognized as a national minority in 1918 and being granted cultural and national autonomy. The Zionist organization Emunah established a branch at Hranice in 1819. There were also a number of Zionist youth organizations that were active. Before the 15th Zionist Congress in 1927, members of the community purchased membership and voting rights; 43 Jews from Hranice subsequently took part in the elections to the 20th Zionist Congress in 1937. In 1930, there were 192 Jews living in Hranice. THE HOLOCAUST Following the Munich Agreement of September 1938, the Republic of Czechoslovakia was dissolved. On March 15, 1939 German forces entered the regions of Bohemia and Moravia, which subsequently became protectorates of Nazi Germany. This ushered in a period of discrimination and violence against the Jews of the region. Beginning in 1941, the Jews were deported to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto, after which they were sent to concentration and death camps, where most were killed. Before their deportation to Terezin, 85 documents and books, and 125 ritual objects were transferred to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR Fourteen Jews returned to Hranice after the war. Though a community was revived, it did not remain active. A prayer house functioned until 1969. In 1996 the synagogue was reconstructed and converted into a museum and art gallery.

Hronov German: Hronow A town in the Hradec Kralove Region, Nachod District, Czech Republic. Hronov is located near the Polish border. Hronov was granted the status of a small town in 1870. Until 1918 Hronov and the region were part of the Austrian monarchy. Between the two World Wars, and during the postwar communist era, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The first Jews settled in Hronov during the 18th century. However, the population never grew significantly, and by the second half of the 19th century only a few Jewish families were living in Hronov. Following the emancipation of Jews throughout the Austrian Empire in 1848, the Jews of Hronov established textile factories in the area and were able to trade without restrictions. The Republic of Czechoslovakia, which was established in 1918 after the end of World War I, granted its Jews cultural and national autonomy. This led to both an increase in the number of Jews becoming fully integrated into public and cultural life, as well as those who became interested in Zionism and Jewish nationalism. The Jews of Hronov purchased membership and voting rights before the 15th Zionist Congress in 1926; in 1937 fifteen Jews from Hronov participated in the elections to the 20th Zionist Congress. Among the notable figures from Hronov is the Czech writer Egon Hostovsky; in 1990 a memorial plaque was affixed to the house where he was born. The census of 1921 found 70 Jews living in Hronov, out of a total population of 3,798. Twelve of those Jews declared their nationality as Jewish, while the others declared themselves as Czech. In 1930 there were 65 Jews living in Hronov (out of a total population of 4,180), of whom 11 declared their nationality as Jewish. THE HOLOCAUST Following the Munich Agreement of September 1938, the Republic of Czechoslovakia was dissolved. On March 15, 1939 German forces entered the regions of Bohemia and Moravia, which subsequently became protectorates of Nazi Germany. This ushered in a period of discrimination and violence against the Jews of the region. Beginning in 1941, the Jews were deported to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto, after which they were sent to concentration and death camps, where most were killed. The artist Friedl Dicker-Brandeis, who was born in Vienna and escaped to Hronov in 1938, was among those deported to Terezin and then Auschwitz, where she was killed.

Hroubovice German: Raubowitz A village in the Pardubice Region, Czech Republic Hroubovice is located 10 miles (16km) from the district town of Chrudim and 71 miles (115km) from Prague. Until 1918 Hroubovice and the region were part of the Austrian monarchy. Between the two World Wars, and during the postwar communist era, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The Jewish cemetery is owned by the Jewish community of Prague, which funds its maintenance. The cemetery is accessible and contains tombstones dating from the 18th through the 20th centuries, as well as a pre-burial house. The Jewish cemetery of Prestavlky is also accessible and includes approximately 70 tombstones. HISTORY Jews began to settle in Hroubovice at the beginning of the 18th century; towards the end of the century the community was officially organized. A Baroque-style synagogue was built, as was a school and a number of Jewish houses, which stood in the center of the village along a stream. A cemetery was consecrated north of the village. During the middle of the 19th century there were 50 Jewish families living in Hroubovice, making up nearly half of the village's population. They owned a total of 30 houses. However, towards the end of the 19th century, after the emancipation of Jews throughout the Austrian Empire in 1848 and the subsequent lifting of residence restrictions, Jews began to move to larger towns and cities, in search of new economic and educational opportunities. As a result, the Jewish community of Hroubovice, like those of other communities in the region, became significantly smaller and in 1894 the independent congregation was dissolved. During the interwar period Zionism became popular in the area. Jews from Hroubovice purchased membership and a voting right before the 15th Zionist Congress in 1927. A number of Jews lived in villages around Hroubovice. One of these villages was Zajesdec, which was located 4 miles (7km) northwest of Hroubovice. By the 18th century there was already a Jewish community in Zajesdec, and the Jews made up about one-third of Zajesdec's population. A Jewish cemetery was consecrated at the end of the 18th century. An Empire-style synagogue was also built, and was later demolished in 1925. Another village affiliated with Hroubovice was Prestavkly, which was located 5 miles (8km) northwest of Hroubovice. A synagogue was built in Prestabkly during the first half of the 19th century and a cemetery was consecrated in 1844. Jews formed approximately one-third of the village's inhabitants. The Czech Jewish journalist Victor Vohryzek was born in Prestavkly in 1864 and died in 1918 in Pardubice. In 1930 only 30 Jews were living in Hroubovice. THE HOLOCAUST Following the Munich Agreement of September 1938, the Republic of Czechoslovakia was dissolved. On March 15, 1939 German forces entered the regions of Bohemia and Moravia, which subsequently became protectorates of Nazi Germany. This ushered in a period of discrimination and violence against the Jews of the region. Beginning in 1941, the Jews were deported to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto, after which they were sent to concentration and death camps, where most were killed. POSTWAR After the war only two survivors from Hroubovice returned to the village. Jewish life was not revived. Most of the Jewish homes in the former Jewish Quarter were refurbished or rebuilt, though burials continued to take place in the cemetery. The synagogue building was demolished by Czech authorities in 1979. The synagogue of Prestavkly was sold and turned into a private home.

Ivancice Jewish sources: Eybshitz German: Eibenschutz A town in the South Moravian Region, Czech Republic Ivancice is located 13 miles (21km) southwest of Brno. Until 1918 Ivancice was part of the Austrian Empire. Between the two World Wars, and during the postwar communist era, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The new synagogue, which was built in 1853 to replace the town's first synagogue, was used as a storage space for 50 years. Since 2008 it has undergone a reconstruction process in order to restore it for the town's cultural needs. The Jewish cemetery has nearly 1,800 tombstones, the oldest of which dates to 1580. It also includes a ceremonial hall, which was built in 1902. The cemetery can be visited after making an appointment. Of the 73 homes that once stood in the Jewish Quarter, 52 remain. A wall-mounted plaque on 1 Krumlovska Street memorializes where the transit and internment camp for Jews was located between 1938 and 1942. HISTORY The Jewish community of Ivancice is one of the oldest in Moravia. According to a local tradition, Jews arrived with Roman troops during the first century and were later expelled. By 956 there was already a synagogue in the town and the names of 157 Jews and 783 Christians appear in tax registers from the time. During the rule of the House of Premysl (895-1306) the Jews had equal rights when it came to taxes and owning property. They were also responsible for participating in building the town’s walls and defending them, along with their Christian neighbors. They were not, however, permitted to carry arms and they did not work as officials for the local government. In 1454 the community of Ivancice absorbed Jewish refugees from Austria and a number of royal towns of Moravia, thereby becoming among the largest and the most important of the Jewish communities in Moravia at that time. However, at the beginning of the 16th century, during the reign of Emperor Ferdinand of Hapsburg, the Jews became subjects to a number of economic restrictions and were also forced to wear a yellow badge that would identify them as Jewish. The Jewish Ghetto of Ivancice was first established during the 14th century outside the town. It was subsequently moved inside the town walls to be administered as an autonomous municipal entity, with a Jewish mayor. The Jews of Ivancice and of a number of nearby settlements lived under the protection of the nobles of the House of Pernstein. During the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), following the persecution of the Christian reform sects by the Catholic Church, the number of Christians in Ivancice shrank. Simultaneously, the Jewish community began to grow, helped by the arrival of many refugees from Bohemia. This influx of Jewish refugees resulted in a 1650 edict forbidding any Jew to live in Moravia who arrived after 1618. The community of Ivancice became officially organized around the 17th century. It had its own rabbi, dayanim (religious judges), a gabbai, and a chevra kaddisha. The Jewish cemetery, in which the oldest tombstone dated to 1552, was expanded during the 17th, and again in the 19th, century. Ivancice's first recorded rabbi, Rabbi Abraham the son of Hirsch Foreis, served during the second half of the 17th century. He was succeeded by Rabbi David of Rakov, who in turn was succeeded by his son Rabbi Joseph Rakov. Rabbi Rakov was followed by Rabbi Elia ben Shmuel, Rabbi Nathan Zelig of Cracow, Rabbi Issachar ber Oppenheim (1829-1859), his son Rabbi Joachim Oppenheim, Rabbi Dr. Jacob Tauber, and Rabbi Dr. Hermann Handel (1881- 1925). Rabbi Handel was the community's last rabbi; afterwards, the community would refer to Rabbi Dr. Heinrich Flesch, the rabbi of Kanits. Ivancice also had a yeshiva that trained rabbis. The town's original synagogue was built sometime during the 16th century; in 1853 a new synagogue was consecrated in its place. This new synagogue had a girls' choir that accompanied the cantor. While the Jewish community offered its children a Jewish education since the 16th century (there are records of a Jewish melamed, teacher of small children, dating to 1598), a Jewish school was opened 1823, in which the language of instruction was German. A new school was opened in 1833 and enrolled 121 pupils, some of whom were not Jewish. By 1856 this second school had 4 classes, however, in 1902 it was closed due to lack of enrollment and the building was used by the community to house the community’s offices and the mikveh. A funeral house was built in the building's courtyard; the man in charge of Jewish burials served also as a policeman and jailer in the Jewish Quarter. In 1752 the Jews of Ivancice lived in 67 houses. By 1791 the community had grown to 533 people (about 45% of the town's total population) living in 72 houses. In 1830 their number rose to 797, and in 1835 the Jewish population was 877. In 1848 Jews throughout the Austrian Empire were emancipated, and residence restrictions were lifted. As a result, Jews throughout the region began moving to larger towns and cities in search of greater economic and educational opportunities. As a result, Jewish populations in places like Ivancice began to decline. By 1857 the population had dropped to 629 though twenty years later, in 1877, they still made up 25% of the total population. In 1900 the town's Jewish population was 564. During World War I the town's Jewish population saw an increase, a result of the many Jewish refugees arriving in Ivancice from Bukovina, but these refugees were asked to leave once the war was over. In 1918 the heretofore autonomous Jewish town was united with the Christian town, after which the community's authority was restricted to religious and social welfare issues. In 1921 the president of the community was Alexander Stern. Among the community's institutions were a Bikkur Holim society, a women’s society, and a charity organization. It was only beginning in the second half of the 19th century, following the emancipation, that the Jews began to be able to take advantage of a wide range of economic opportunities. The first Jews in Ivancice made their living in crafts, trade and in leasing inns. Jews were not allowed to own real estate during the 17th century, limiting their economic activities, and during the 18th century Jewish merchants were allowed to conduct their business only in the town’s market. After the emancipation, however, things changed. The Jews of Ivancice founded businesses and went into academic professions. The graduates of the German universities of Vienna, Prague, and Brno, who did not find suitable positions in their town left for other towns. The Jews of Ivancice declared their nationality as German until the turn of the 20th century. At that point Ivancice became one of the centers of Czech nationalism, which led to tensions between the Christian residents of the town, who began identifying strongly as Czech, and their Jewish neighbors who were seen as other. The town's residents demonstrated in the Jewish Quarter, and withdrew their children from the Jewish school. Ultimately, once the Republic of Czechoslovakia was formed at the end of World War I, the new republic recognized the Jews as a national minority. Nonetheless, the nationalist friction between the Jews of Ivancice and the Czech townspeople continued until 1925. Once Jews were recognized as a national minority within the Republic of Czechoslovakia, many became involved with Jewish nationalism and the Zionist movement. In 1921, 157 out of the 190 Jews of Ivancice declared their nationality as Jewish; the rest declared their nationality as Czech or German. During this period Zionism became popular; in 1926, members of the community purchased membership and voting rights prior to the 15th Zionist Congress, and continued to do so over the years. Jews were also active in the town's politics, and during the interwar period delegates from the Jewish community served on the town council. Relationships between the Jews and Czechs improved during the interwar period, so much so that Jewish assimilation rose and some younger members of the community married non-Jews. Among the notable Jews from Ivancice are the actor, director, and playwright Leopold Adler, the musicologist Guido Adler, and the composer Hugo Weisgall. THE HOLOCAUST The Munich Agreement of September 1938 resulted in the dissolution of the Republic of Czechoslovakia and annexed the Sudeten Region to German. As a result, large numbers of Czech and Jewish refugees from the region came to nearby Ivancice, though many of them were expelled and forced to return to the annexed territory. Jews who refused to return were left stranded on the new border, without any shelter or protection. After the intervention of Jan Masaryk, the exiled president of Czechoslovakia who had fled to London, a transit camp was set up for the refugees at the leather factory of Moritz Goldmann, the president of the community of Ivancice. This transit camp functioned until 1942, and 801 refugees passed through it. In March 1939 the Czech part of the republic (Bohemia and Moravia) became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the Jews of the region. Under German rule, the community of Ivancice served as a regional community. The Jews were evicted from their houses and concentrated in the Jewish Quarter. Their property was nationalized, their rights were dispossessed, and they were sent to work in factories and in mines. By November 1939 young Jewish men from the transit camp were deported to the concentration camp of Nisko in Poland. Some escaped and joined the Czech units that fought the Germans with the Soviet Red Army. Led by the Czech student Hynek Ruzicka, an anti-Nazi underground movement emerged at Ivancice which young Jews from the transit camp joined. In 1942 the Jews of Ivancice and the nearby transit camp were sent to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto in 4 transports, the first of which took place on March 11, 1942. Some of the deportees were sent to the concentration camp Maidanek, while others and others were sent to Auschwitz. The last Jews, those who were in mixed marriages, were deported in 1944. Before the deportation, 517 documents and ritual objects from the Jewish community of Ivancice were sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR Eighteen Jews from Ivancice survived the war. In May 1945, at the end of the war, the first of the community's survivors returned to Ivancice. They were mostly those from mixed marriages who were deported later, as well as the young men who had escaped from Nisko and fought in the Czech units. Most of them left Ivancice shortly thereafter, and only a few remained in the town. The synagogue building was demolished in 1950.

Jemnice German: Jamnitz A town the Vysocina Region, Czech Republic Until 1918 Jemnice and the region were part of the Austrian Empire. Between the two World Wars, and during the postwar communist era, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. Though the cemetery was damaged and vandalized during World War II, and the mortuary was destroyed during the 1950s, a few hundred tombstones are still standing. The oldest of the remaining tombstones dates to 1676. The cemetery is owned by the Jewish community of Brno, which renovated the cemetery in 1997 and has funded its maintenance. It is freely accessible to visitors. HISTORY The Jewish community of Jemnice is probably one of the oldest in Moravia; the community is first mentioned in connection with its suffering during the Armleder massacres of 1336. Tombstones in the Jewish cemetery date back to1362, and there are records from 1369 of a Jewish man's involvement in selling real estate. Sources from 1530 mention Jewish homeowners, and throughout the 16th and 17th centuries transactions in real estate between Jews and gentiles were frequently documented. A synagogue was built in 1648, but burned down in 1752. There were nine Jewish tailors in Jemnice in 1755. In 1812 a German-language elementary school was founded, which was run as a government school until 1918. During a fire in 1832 all 28 houses in the Jewish Quarter burned down. Riots broke out in 1866 when the Jews were accused of actively supporting the Prussians. There were 24 families living in 11 houses in 1666. In 1754 the number of families who were allowed to live in the town was increased from 30 to 45; consequently, the community's population rose to 263 people (nearly 20% of the total population) in 1781, and 325 people in 1830. After the emancipation of Jews throughout the Austrian Empire in 1848, and the consequent lifting of residence restrictions, Jews began moving to larger towns and cities, seeking greater economic and educational opportunities. Like other similar communities, Jemnice's population began to decline. In 1857 there were 305 Jews living in the town, and 200 in 1869. The population dropped further to102 in 1910, and subsequently 84 in 1921. By 1930 there were only 52 Jews living in the town (1.5% of the total). THE HOLOCAUST In 1942 the community was deported to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto, after which they were sent to concentration and death camps. Ritual objects from the synagogue were sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague.

Jevicko German: Gewitsch A town in the Pardubice Region, Czech Republic The first documented evidence of a Jewish community in Jevicko dates to 1566, though it is thought that the community was actually founded during the 14th century. In 1657 there were 16 Jewish households in the town. A prayer room was opened in 1620, and a synagogue was eventually built in 1784. A fire in 1869, which destroyed the main part of the Jewish Quarter, caused many Jews leave and settle elsewhere. Between 1798 and 1848 there were 138 families who were granted permission to live in Jevicko. The Jewish population rose from 776 people in 1830 to 989 in 1848. After the emancipation of Jews throughout the Austrian Empire in 1848, many Jews throughout the region began moving to larger towns and cities, seeking greater educational and economic opportunities. At that point, the Jewish population of Jevicko began to decline; there were 462 Jews living in Jevicko in 1869,and 286 in 1890. In 1930 there were 86 Jews in Jevicko (3.1% of the total population). THE HOLOCAUST In 1942 the community was sent to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto, after which they were deported to a number of concentration and death camps. Before the deportation, a number of ritual objects were sent from the synagogue to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR The synagogue was converted into a Hussite Church in 1953. In 2000 a memorial plaque was added to commemorate the victims of the Holocaust. The old cemetery was destroyed in 1945. As of 2009 a car shed is located on the site. The new cemetery was destroyed in 1972, and the site was turned into a park. The park contains a group of representative stones to recall the site's original use as a Jewish cemetery.

Jihlava German: Iglau The capital city of the Vysocina Region, Czech Republic Jihlava is located on the Jihlava River on the historical border between Moravia and Bohemia. Until 1918 Jihlava and the region were part of the Austrian Empire. Between the two World Wars, and during the postwar communist era, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The Jewish cemetery contains over 1,000 tombstones and was reconstructed in 1993. In 1995 a memorial plaque was added to commemorate the victims of the Holocaust. Among those buried in the cemetery are the parents of Gustav Mahler, as well as the composer's two siblings. In 1992 a memorial plaque, written in Czech and Hebrew, was placed in the area where the synagogue of Jihlava once stood. This area has been part of the Gustav Mahler Park since 2010. HISTORY Jews are first mentioned in Jihlava in 1249. In 1345 Charles IV encouraged the municipality to invite Jews to settle there to develop the burgeoning cloth industry. Town records between the years 1359 to 1420 record 2,700 financial transactions between Jews and non-Jews. After a fire in 1353 the Jews, like the other citizens, were released from paying taxes. In 1426 Albert V, suspecting that the Jews supported the Hussites, expelled the Jews from the city. They settled in nearby Puklice (Puklitz), Pulice (Pullitz), Pyrnice (Pirnitz), and Trest (Triesch). With no Jews in the city to attend religious services, Jihlava's synagogue was converted into a church in 1511. Between 1708 and 1782 Jews began to be admitted to the town for business purposes only, on the condition that they paid a special tax. In 1837 there were 17 Jews living in Jihlava legally, though more had settled in the city illegally. After the emancipation of Jews throughout the Austrian Empire in1848, and the subsequent lifting of residence restrictions, a community grew rapidly in Jihlava. A prayer room was opened in 1856, a synagogue in 1863, and a cemetery in 1869. Jews were also instrumental in developing the local economy. In addition to a chevra kaddisha, the Jewish community supported a Jewish women's group, a chapter of the sports club Maccabi, a Shir Zion choir, and a chapter of the Zionist group Society of Theodor Herzl. The community numbered 1,179 people in1869, and in 1921 the Jewish population was 1,180. In 1930 there were 1,025 Jews in Jihlava (3.3% of the total population), 327 of whom declared their nationality as Jewish. Among the notable figures from Jihlava are the composer Gustav Mahler (1860-1911), who lived in the town until he turned 17, the poet and politician Louis Furnberg (1909-1957), the director Karel Meinhard (1875-1949), the singer Jara Pospisil (1905-1979), the writer Ernest Sommer (1888-1955), the banker Karel von Morawitz (1846-1914), the anatomist and politician Dr. Julius Tandler (1869-1939), as well as Theodor Herzl's colleague Siegmund Werner (1867-1928). THE HOLOCAUST After the Sudeten Crisis of 1938, and the Munich Agreement that dissolved the Republic of Czechoslovakia and annexed the Sudeten Region to Nazi Germany, many Jews fled to Jihlava, seeking refuge. However, in March 1939 the region of Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the Jews of the region. On November 10, 1938 Jihlava's synagogue was plundered and badly damaged in an attempt to burn it down. Jewish shops were destroyed during another pogrom on April 28, 1939. In 1942 the city's Jews were deported to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto, from which they were sent to a number of concentration and death camps. Before the deportation, a number of ritual objects were sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. Thirty-two Jews from Jihlava survived the war. POSTWAR Jewish life in Jihlava was temporarily renewed after the war, but between 1947 through 1950 waves of emigration to the west and to Israel depleted the population. In 1950 the damaged synagogue was destroyed.

Jindrichuv Hradec German: Neuhaus A town in the South Bohemian Region, Czech Republic Until 1918, Jindrichuv Hradec and the surrounding region were part of the Austrian Empire. Between the two World Wars, and during the postwar communist era, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The Jewish cemetery has been preserved, with the oldest legible tombstone dating to 1714. In 1990 it was restored by the local youth group Junak. The cemetery also includes a ceremonial hall that still contains the original equipment used to prepare the dead for burial, as well as a tahara and a hearse. HISTORY Jews began settling in Jindrichuv Hradec at the end of the 13th century. By the 15th century, however, at the request of the local residents, the number of Jewish families in Jindrichuv was limited to four families, and their economic activities were restricted; among the permitted occupations was that of glazier. The cemetery, which was consecrated around 1400, was expanded in 1576. During the 17th century most of the Jews in the area traded in cloth, wool, and tobacco. Six Jewish families (31 people) were recorded as living in the town in 1682, but one family was expelled shortly thereafter since the limit of permitted Jews had been exceeded. Jews who had been expelled from Prague settled in Jindrichuv in 1745. The synagogue and many Jewish homes were burned down in a fire in 1801. This would not be the last time the Jewish community of Jindrichuv would suffer. In 1859 the town's Jews were suspected of opposing the Hapsburgs, an accusation that was repeated again during World War I. This led to a number of anti-Jewish riots, both in 1859 and in 1919. Samuel Judah b. David Kauder served as rabbi in the town from 1822 to 1834. The Jews opened a knitting mill in 1888, which employed 680 workers. At a time when Czech nationalism was competing with German nationalism in many areas throughout the Republic of Czechoslovakia, the pro-Czech Jewish Movement (Cechu Zidu), led by Eduard (Leda) Lederer, was very active in Jindrichuv. In 1905 it had the Jewish German-language school in the town closed down. Jewish nationalism also became popular; after World War I the Zionist movement became active in Jindrichuv. There were 791 Jews living in the district in 1869 and 617 in 1880. The community itself had 339 members in 1902 and 234 (2.5% of the total population) in 1930, eight of whom declared their nationality as Jewish. Among the notable figures from Jindrichuv were the Chorus Master and Conductor of the Metropolitan Opera in New York City, Kurt Adler (1907-1977), and the opera singer and composer Karel Berman (1919-1995). THE HOLOCAUST Those from the community who had not left by 1942 were deported to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were sent to concentration and death camps. Before the community was sent to Terezin, ritual objects from the synagogue were sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague.

Kladno A city in the Central Bohemian Region, Czech Republic Kladno is located 16 miles (25km) northwest of Prague. Until 1918 Kladno and the region were part of the Austrian Empire. During the interwar period, and during the postwar communist era, they were part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. One of the Torah scrolls from Kladno which was sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague during World War II, has been on permanent loan to Congregation Beth El in Fairfield, Connecticut. The Northwood and Pinner Liberal Synagogue (NPLS) of Northwood, Middlesex, UK has a portion of another Torah scroll from Kladno. The synagogue that the Jewish community gave to the Czech Hussite National Church during the war still functions as a church. HISTORY For a long time Jews were not permitted to settle in the mining regions of the Austrian Empire, which included Kladno. As a result, it was only at the beginning of the 19th century that the first Jewish family settled in Kladno; by the middle of the 19th century there were three Jewish families living in the city. After the emancipation of Jews throughout the Austrian Empire in 1848, and the subsequent removal of residence restrictions, the Jewish population of Kladno increased considerably. By 1900 there were 430 Jews living in the city. Kladno's first first prayer room was dedicated in 1864. The synagogue was consecrated in 1884, the same year that the Jewish community was officially recognized by the authorities; in 1893 the community would be officially registered as a religious community (kultusgemeinde). The cemetery was consecrated in 1889, about half a mile (900 meters) northeast of the synagogue, near the general cemetery. A modern funeral pavilion was later built in the cemetery in 1938. The Jews of Kladno worked as merchants and professionals. Those with capital developed the mines and other resident industries. Some of the local mines were owned by Jews. During the interwar period, the Republic of Czechoslovakia recognized the Jews as a national minority with corresponding rights. Nonetheless, Zionism was not particularly popular in Kladno. Some community members did, however, purchase membership and voting rights for the elections to the 15th Zionist Congress in 1927. In 1921 there were 257 Jews living in Kladno. By 1930, the population had decreased to 210. THE HOLOCAUST The Munich Agreement of September 1938 dissolved the Republic of Czechoslovakia. On March 15, 1939, the German Army entered the Czech territory of Bohemia and Moravia, and the region became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of violence and discrimination against the area's Jews. In order to save the synagogue from destruction by the Germans, the Jews of Kladno gave it to the Hussite Church and began holding religious services at the cemetery in the funeral pavilion, which had been built in 1938. At the beginning of October, 1941 there were 2,079 Jews were living in the sub-district of Kladno. Between February 6th and 11th, 1942, the Jews were ordered to register so that they could eventually be deported. On the 22nd and 26th of that month, 1,623 Jews from the sub-district of Kladno were expelled in two transports to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were sent to concentration and extermination camps, where most were killed. Before the community was sent to Terezin, 278 documents, 17 books, and 170 ritual objects from Kladno were sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. Only 120 Jews from the sub-district survived the war. A small number of Jews remained in Kladno during the war: those who were exempt from expulsion (mainly Jews married to non-Jews), Jews who happened to be in prison during the deportations, and some who managed to hide. At the end of December, 1944 there were 279 Jews in Kladno and the surrounding area. POSTWAR After the liberation, 272 Jews were found to be living in Kladno and the surrounding area. The community was briefly revived, but emigration began to take a toll. In 1948 there were 15 Jews living in Kladno, but only 75 were registered as part of the Jewish community.

Klatovy German: Klattau A town in the Plzen Region, Czech Republic The Jewish cemetery has tombstones dating from the second half of the 19th century through the 20th century and includes a special section for children, as well as a memorial for the victims of the Holocaust. The cemetery is owned by the Jewish community of Plzen owns the cemetery and can be accessed with permission. One of the Torah scrolls from Klatovy that had been sent to the Central Jewish Museum of Prague during World War II has been on loan to Temple Emanuel of Winston-Salem, North Carolina since 1991. The other nine scrolls are located in the United States and England, including one in the Thanet Community in Ramsgate, and one in the North West Surrey Synagogue. HISTORY One Jewish woman is mentioned in Klatovy in the early 14th century; although no other documentary evidence exists, it is assumed that there was a Jewish community in Klatovy until the 16th century. During the 18th century the rabbinic center for the Klatovy District was in Pobezovice (German: Ronsperg). After 1867, Jews, mostly from the nearby towns of Strazov, Janovice, and Svihov, established a congregation in Klatovy and established a cemetery; in 1873 the community dedicated a synagogue. There were 1,345 Jews living in the district in 1869 and 1,305 in 1881. There were 724 Jews (108 families) in Klatovy itself in 1893, and Jews in 14 villages were affiliated with the community. At the end of the 19th century Jews established more than three-quarters of the town's factories. Life could be difficult for the Jews of Klatovy. In 1899 anti-Semitic riots broke out in response to the Hilsner blood libel trial. Later, more riots broke out after a Jewish youth was accused of defiling the statue of a saint. There were more riots in 1919. During World War I there were more than 1,000 Jews living in Klatovy, many of whom were fleeing the war in the east. Klatovy's Jewish population fluctuated between the two World Wars. While the town continued to attract Jews from the countryside, many others moved to larger towns and cities, seeking more educational and economic opportunities. In 1930 the Jewish population of Klatovy was 344 (2.4% of the total population). Among the notable figures from Klatovy were the Czech poet and author Frantisek Gottlieb (1903-1974), the chief rabbi of Bohemia-Moravia Gustav Sicher (1880-1960), and the Czech-Jewish poet Karel Fleischmann (1897-1944). THE HOLOCAUST During the Sudeten Crisis of 1938, and the subsequent Munich Agreement that dissolved the Republic of Czechoslovakia and annexed the Sudeten region to Nazi Germany, many Jews from the southwestern border of Bohemia fled to Klatovy. However, in March 1939 the region of Bohemia and Moravia, including Klatovy, became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the area's Jews. The synagogue was plundered by Czech fascists on July 15, 1941. The mayor had the attackers arrested and intended to bring them to trial, but German pressure resulted in their release. The synagogue building was then given to the local museum. In the fall of 1942 the Germans deported all Jews from Klatovy to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto, and from there they were sent to concentration and death camps where most were killed. Objects from the synagogue, including ten Torah scrolls, were sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR Fifty-five Jews from Klatovy survived the war and returned to Klatovy, though they left within a year or two. A memorial for victims of the Holocaust was dedicated in the Jewish cemetery in 1989.

Kojetin German: Kojetein A Moravian town in the Olomouc Region, Czech Republic The synagogue, which was used as a warehouse during World War II, was subsequently turned into a Czechoslovak Hussite Church. The building has a memorial plaque dedicated to the victims of the Holocaust. The Jewish cemetery is one of the oldest in Moravia and can be accessed by visitors. Though the ceremonial hall was destroyed in the 1970s, many of the tombstones are still standing. The cemetery is owned by the Jewish community of North Olmouc, which pays for its maintenance. The Education and Information Center in Masaryk Square includes a mini-exhibition dedicated to the history of Jewish culture. Five Torah scrolls were sent from Kojetin to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague during World War II. One of the scrolls is on permanent loan to Temple Bat Yam in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, and is displayed as part of the synagogue's Holocaust memorial. A second Torah scroll is used by Maidenhead Synagogue in the United Kingdom. The other scrolls are on permanent loan to Congregation Beth Am in Wheeling, Illinois, B'nai Jacob Congregation in Chicago, Illinois, and Temple Menorah-Knesseth Chai, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. HISTORY It is thought that Jews lived in Kojetin beginning in the 13th century, but the first documentary evidence of their presence in the town dates from 1566, when 52 families lived on the Judengasse (Jewish Street). Records of the cemetery's consecration date to 1574. The synagogue, which had a seating capacity of 300, was renovated in 1614, and again in 1718. During the late 17th century most of the Jews of Kojetin worked as peddlers and cattle growers. In 1657 only 16 houses were owned by Jews, but the population was growing; during this period the community was absorbing refugees from the Chmielnicki Massacres (1648) as well as some of those who were expelled from Vienna in 1670. Not coincidentally, minhag polin, (the prayer customs derived from Poland), was introduced to the community of Kojetin in 1648. The Jewish Quarter had 500 people living in 40 houses in 1727. Life, however, could have been worse; at that point Kojetin was owned by the archbishop of Prague, who treated the Jewish community fairly. It was the Jewish community itself that proved to be a source of drama. During this period there was a scandal in Kojetin, which was mentioned in contemporary rabbinic literature; a Frankist (a follower of the false messiah Jacob Frank) was accused of making the sign of the cross when blessing the community. In 1798 the law limited the number of Jewish families who were allowed to live in Kojetin to 76. In 1829 there were 443 Jews in the town, living in 45 houses. Most traded in hides, wax, feathers, and wool. Shortly thereafter, however, in 1848, Jews throughout the Austrian Empire were emancipated, and economic and residence restrictions were lifted. During the period following the emancipation the community flourished. However, beginning in 1860 the population began to decline, as many of its members were attracted to larger towns and cities and the myriad economic and educational opportunities that could be found there. By 1869 the Jewish population of Kojetin had dropped to 162. Only 72 Jews (1.1% of the total population), 30 of whom declared their nationality as Jewish, were living in the town in 1930. Among the rabbis who served in Kojetin were Eleazer Fleckeles (1779-- 83), a student of Rabbi Ezekiel Landau (the Nodeh b'Yehuda), Jacob Bruell (1843--89), and Richard Feder (1903-06). Notable figures from the town include the scholar David Kaufmann (1852-1899). Additionally, several Jewish family names are connected with Kojetin, including the last names Goitein, Guttein, and Kojeteiner. THE HOLOCAUST The region of Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany on March, 1939, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the area's Jews. On June 26, 1942 the Jews remaining in Kojetin were deported to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were sent to a number of concentration and death camps where most perished. Before the deportation, objects from the synagogue in Kojetin were transferred to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR A small congregation was established after World War II and was affiliated with Olomouc. This congregation, however, dissolved shortly thereafter.

Kolin Older sources refer to the town as Neukollin A town in the Central Bohemian Region, Czech Republic Kolin is located approximately 34 miles (55km) east of Prague, on the Elbe River. Until 1918 Kolin and the region were part of the Austrian Empire. During the interwar period, and during the postwar communist era (until 1993), it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. Approximately half of the buildings from the original Jewish Quarter have been preserved. This includes the synagogue that was originally built during the 17th century, making it the second oldest synagogue in the Czech Republic. The synagogue has been restored, and has become a cultural center that has preserved the synagogue's interior. The synagogue has been named a protected monument. Kolin's two Jewish cemeteries have been preserved. The older cemetery includes the tombstone of Betsal'el ben Yehudah (d. 1599, the son of the Maharal of Prague). This cemetery contains tombstones that date to the first half of the 15th century. A newer cemetery, which was consecrated in 1887, includes a Holocaust memorial. Both cemeteries can be accessed with permission. One of the Torah scrolls from Kolin that was sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague during World War II is on permanent loan to the Northwood and Pinner Liberal Synagogue of London. HISTORY The Jewish community of Kolin was one of the four communities included in the Hebrew abbreviation "Karban" (Kolin, Roudnice, Bumsla, Nachod), demonstrating its importance (as well as those of the other communities mentioned) as second only to Prague. Town records from 1376-1401 mention 16 Jewish households. By the end of the 15th century there was already an established cemetery. Records from 1512 also include references to an "old" synagogue, indicating that it has been built long before. The Jews were expelled from the town in 1541, but returned in 1557. This proved to be a temporary respite; they were expelled once again in 1561, and returned yet again in 1564. By 1574 the community was made up of 33 families. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries the Jewish community of Kolin continued to grow; from 138 families in 1718, the community grew to 251 families (1,169 people) in 1793. A synagogue with an ark donated by Samuel Oppenheimer was dedicated in 1696. In a fire in 1796, 43 Jewish houses, housing 205 families, were burned down. During the revolutionary year of 1848, there were 30 Jews from Kolin who joined a national guard unit, sent to aid the revolution in Prague; however, they were forced out of the unit shortly thereafter. That year, Jews throughout the Austrian Empire were emancipated, and the economic and residence restrictions that had heretofore constrained them were lifted. Kolin was home to one of the largest and most prominent yeshivas in Bohemia. The yeshiva was modernized during the 19th century and was called the "Beit Midrash-Anstalt" (Institution). In his visit to the town in 1855, Moses Montefiore was so impressed by the yeshiva that he endowed a foundation for its students. In addition to the yeshiva, other organizations supported by the Jewish community included a chevra kaddisha, a branch of the Maccabi sports club, as well as a number of Zionist, educational, women's, and charitable organizations. In 1857 there were 1,347 Jews (16.1% of the total population) living in Kolin. In 1881 the town's Jewish population was 1,148 (9.8% of the total population). In 1913 a young Roman Catholic priest, whose last name was Hrachovsky, attempted to levy a blood libel charge against the town's Jews. This was an attempt to cover up his own involvement in the suicide of a young woman whom the priest had impregnated. Between the two World Wars many Jews in Kolin supported the Czecho-Jewish movement. This movement was established in 1919 in order to promote and embrace the assimilation of the Jews into the Czech language and culture. Among the rabbis who lived or served in Kolin were Jacob Illowy (1746-1781), Eleazar b. Eleazar Kallir (1781-1802), and Daniel Frank (1839-1860). The last rabbi to serve in the community was Richard Feder. Among the notable figures from Kolin were the Viennese philosopher, scientist, and inventor Joseph Popper-Lynkeus, the Jewish national politician Ludwig Singer, the Czech poet and literary critic Otokar Fischer, and the industrialists Isidor, Julius, and Ignaz Petschek. There were 430 Jews (2.3% of the total population) living in the town in 1930 (2.3%). THE HOLOCAUST After the Munich Agreement of September, 1938 the Republic of Czechoslovakia was dissolved, and the Sudeten Region was annexed to Nazi Germany. At that point, many Jews began arriving in Kolin from the Sudeten region, hoping to flee the Nazi regime. At that point life in Kolin was seemingly stable. Beginning in March, 1939 Prague supplied the town with kosher meat. About 600 Jews organized for collective emigration, and were even given support by the French government to establish a settlement in New Caledonia. The outbreak of World War II, however, in September 1939, halted these plans. The region of Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, and a period of discrimination and violence against the Jews of the region began. In January, 1940, Jewish shops were confiscated, three months before the same would happen to Jewish stores throughout the rest of Bohemia and Moravia. Jewish women were forced to work in a local soap factory. The cemetery was damaged by an aircraft bombardment. Beginning on June 10, 1942, three transports left from Kolin to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto; a total of 2,202 Jews from Kolin and other areas were deported on these transports. From Terezin, they were deported to a number of concentration and death camps, where a total of 2,098 perished, 475 of whom were from Kolin itself; 104 Jews from Kolin survived the war. Before the deportation to Terezin, ritual objects and synagogue equipment was sent from Kolin to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR A small community was reestablished in 1945. By 1948 there were 98 acknowledged Jews living in the town, and an additional118 who did not officially acknowledge their Jewishness. The community, however, was ultimately short-lived. By 1966 there were only 15 Jews left in the community. A memorial to the victims of the Holocaust was erected in 1950. In 1969 the Jewish community of Kolin became affiliated with the Jewish community of Prague. In 1970 it was dissolved. The last acknowledged Jewish resident of Kolin died in 1981.

Kromeriz German: Kremsier A town in Moravia, Zlin Region, Czech Republic Until 1918 Kromeriz and the surrounding region were part of the Austrian Empire. Between the two World Wars, and during the postwar communist era (until 1993), it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. Of the original 36 houses that stood in the Jewish Quarter, 31 have survived, many of which date to the 17th century. Part of the 18th-century wall separating the Jewish Quarter from the rest of the town can also be found under the parish church. The new Jewish cemetery, consecrated in 1924, was badly damaged by the Nazis and only five tombstones have been preserved. This cemetery includes a memorial to the victims of the Holocaust, as well as remains from the old Jewish cemetery that were transferred to the new Jewish cemetery in 1997. This cemetery is open to the public. A memorial sculpture dedicated to the destruction of the Jewish community and the synagogue can be found near the Kromeriz community center. The Torah scrolls that were sent from the Jewish community of Kromeriz to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague during World War II are on permanent loan to the following synagogues in the United States: Temple Beth Israel in Longboat Key, Florida, Temple Beth David in Westminster, California, Temple Shearith Israel in Ridgefield, Connecticut, Shaare Tefila Congregation in Silver Spring, Maryland, Mizpah Congregation in Chattanooga Tennessee, Temple Sholom in Bridgewater, New Jersey, Temple Sinai in North Miami Beach, Florida, and Temple Emeth in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts. HISTORY The Jewish community of Kromeriz was among the oldest in Europe. In 1322 the bishop of Olomouc (German: Olmuetz) was given permission to allow one Jew to settle in the town. A community developed shortly tehreafter under the protection of the bishop. The Jewish community of Kromeriz would remain under the protection of successive bishops until the emancipation of Jews throughout the Austrian Empire in 1848 and the subsequent removal of residence restrictions. In fact, in acknowledgment of the protection that the community was offered for so many years, the synagogue and community house displayed the episcopal coat of arms with a cross and cardinal's hat. Early records from the Jewish community indicate that a Jewish person brought a lawsuit against a non-Jew in the town court. After conflicts with their non-Jewish neighbors, the Jewish community moved to another part of the town in 1546. In 1642, during the Thirty Years' War, the community was destroyed by the Swedes, an event written about and mourned in several contemporary selichot (penitential prayers). Shortly thereafter, the reestablished community absorbed many refugees from the Chmielnicki massacres of1648; an additional eight families who had been expelled from Vienna in 1670 settled in the town under the protection of the bishop. By 1676 there were 27 Jewish families living in the town. During the 17th century Kromeriz was considered to be the most important and affluent community in Moravia, second only to Mikulov (German: Nikolsburg). From 1689 until 1697 it was the main headquarters of the general rabbinate. During the 18th century, however, the community became impoverished and many of its members left. After protracted legal proceedings that began in 1785, the community was required to give up the site of its old cemetery in 1882 (a new cemetery had been opened in 1850). A blood libel in 1889, and again in 1896, led to unrest within the town. A new synagogue was dedicated in 1910. The old synagogue, which was originally built in the late 17th century, was torn down in 1921. A new cemetery was also consecrated in 1924. In 1829, while Jews were still subject to residence restrictions and the number of Jews permitted to live in Kromeriz was limited, the Jewish community of Kromeriz was home to 106 families (546 people). By 1880, after the residence restrictions had been lifted, there were 783 Jews living in the town. Shortly thereafter, however, Jews throughout the region began moving to larger towns and cities, seeking greater economic and educational opportunities. As a result, Jewish populations in places like Kromeriz began to decline. In 1900 there were 611 Jews living in Kromeriz, and the population dropped further to 390 in 1921. In 1930 the Jewish population of Kromeriz was 382 (12% of the total population). Among the rabbis who served the community were Menachem Mendel Krochmal (1636-1642), Issachar Berush Eskeles (1710-1719), and the historian Adolf Frankl-Gruen (1877-1911). Notable figures from the town include the scholars Joseph Weiss and Emanuel Baumgarten (1828-1908), the historian Max Grunfeld (1856-1933), and the art historian Adolf Donath (1876-1937). THE HOLOCAUST In March 1939, a few months before the outbreak of World War II, the regions of Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the region's Jews. Among the anti-Jewish laws that was quickly enacted was a prohibition against shehita-kosher slaughtering. The Nazis blew up and destroyed the synagogue in Kromeriz and badly damaged the new cemetery. In 1942 the community was deported to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were sent to concentration and death camps, where most were killed. Before the community's deportation, a number of ritual objects and synagogue equipment was sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR A small congregation, affiliated with the town of Kyjov, was briefly reestablished after the war A memorial to the Nazi victims of the Holocaust was unveiled in the new Jewish cemetery in 1962. In 1997 bones from the old Jewish cemetery were moved to the new Jewish cemetery. In 1994 a memorial was unveiled commemorating the Jewish community and the destruction of the synagogue by the Nazis.

Kutna Hora Medieval Czech: Hory Kutne German: Kuttenberg A city in the Central Bohemian Region, Czech Republic Kutna Hora is located about 37 miles (60km) southeast of Prague. In fact, from the 13th until the 16th century it competed with Prague culturally, politically, and economically. Until 1918 Kutna Hora was part of the Austrian Empire. Between the two World Wars, and during the postwar communist era (until 1993), it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. Since 1995 the city center has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The former synagogue building in Kutna Hora has served as a Czechoslovak Hussite church since 1949. Its exterior has been preserved, including a large Star of David located on top of the building. A monument was built in front of the former synagogue to commemorate the local Jewish victims of the Nazis. In 2012 a memorial plaque was also unveiled at the former synagogue. HISTORY As a designated royal town, Jews were forbidden from settling within Kutna Hora. It was only after the emancipation of Jews throughout the Austrian Empire in 1848, and the subsequent removal of residence restrictions, that Jews were able to settle in the city. Before they were allowed to settle in Kutna Hora the Jews who came to trade in the city lived in smaller towns in the area. Malin was among the surrounding neighborhoods that had a significant Jewish community. During the first half of the 19th century there were 24 Jewish families living in Malin, and Malin also had many of the Jewish communal institutions that would eventually be used by the burgeoning Jewish community in Kutna Hora. Beginning in 1802, religious services were held at a prayer house built by Hirsch Fischer in his distillery. In 1847 the prayer house was expanded. In 1856 the distillery, with the prayer house in it, was completely destroyed in a fire and until the distillery was rebuilt, services were held in a private house. Hirsch Eisler and his brother established a Jewish religious society in Malin in 1864, and members came from Jewish communities throughout the area. Because the society was not recognized as an organized community, and therefore could not impose dues on its members, its activities were funded by voluntary contributions. Indeed, 33 families contributed to the construction of a synagogue in Malin. However, synagogue construction took four years (1859-1863), due to difficulties in raising the necessary funds. The eventual synagogue building also held a mikvah and an apartment for the cantor. It would serve the community until the end of World War I; in 1922 the building would be sold to the Czech sports organization Sokol. In 1865 Wolf Steiner was elected as the community's leader. Another Jewish community in the area was located in Malesov, which has records of a Jewish community dating to 1719, when approximately 15 Jewish families and a rabbi were living in the town. During the first half of the 19th century the number of the families living in Malesov grew to 20 (140 people). A cemetery was probably opened during the 18th century and expanded during the second half of the 19th century; this cemetery also eventually served the Jews of Kutna Hora. Most of the Jewish houses were located on the Jewish Street. The Jewish Street was also home to a Jewish school, a synagogue that was built around the middle of the 19th century, and, during World War I, an Orthodox prayer house that served Jewish refugees from Galicia. Jews lived in Zbraslavice, another town in the area, for approximately 300 years. By 1692 the community had a Jewish cemetery. A wooden synagogue served the community of Zbraslavice for about 200 years until a brick synagogue was built in 1832. As mentioned previously, Jews settled at Kutna Hora during the second half of the 19th century, after the emancipation. They were thought as being in favor of German culture, which caused tension and led to pogroms in 1861 led by Czech nationalists. In 1871 the Jews of Kutna Hora founded a religious society that consisted of 14 members. A prayer house was opened at Kutna Hora in 1881; until then, most went to Malin for services. An actual synagogue building was consecrated in 1902. In 1893, when the number of Jews at Kutna Hora had reached 169, the community was officially organized. A committee was elected, with W. Beran as the leader of the community and Rabbi A. Rubinstein as the rabbi. Among the subsequent rabbis who served the community Kutna Hora were Rabbi Emanuel Steiner, Rabbi Solomon Podvinec, Rabbi Maxim Stransky, and Rabbi Shimon Abeles. The community's last rabbi was Gabriel Gottlieb, who served between 1912 and 1918. The institutions that served the community included a chevra kaddisha and a women's society. Most Jews worked as traders, while others owned factories (the Teller family owned a sugar factory and all of their employees were Jewish) or worked as professionals. With the removal of residence restrictions during the second half of the 19th century, Jews throughout the Czech lands began moving to larger towns and cities, seeking greater economic and educational opportunities. As a result, the populations and importance of the small towns around Kutna Hora declined, and those communities began to affiliate with the community of Kutna Hora. Kutna Hora played an important role during the Hilsner Affair of 1899-1900, a famous blood libel case when Leopold Hilsner, a Jew from eastern Bohemia, was accused of murdering a young woman. Kutna Hora was the site of Hilsner's first trial, which took place between September 12-16, 1899. At the end of the trial, Hilsner was convicted of aggravated murder. The verdict led to a number of riots that broke out throughout Bohemia and Moravia. Hilsner's lawyer appealed to the Supreme Court in Vienna; the original verdict was nullified, but Hilsner was again found guilty after a trial that took place in the southern Bohemian city of Pisek. He was ultimately pardoned just before World War I by Emperor Charles I. During World War I many Jews from Kutna Hora enlisted in the army. In fact, after the war a commemoration statue was erected in the city in memory of the Jewish soldiers who were killed in battle. During the interwar period, the Republic of Czechoslovakia recognized the Jews as a national minority, with attendant rights. Zionism became particularly active in Kutna Hora during this time, and a branch of the Zion society was established. In 1921 the Jewish community of Kutna Hora numbered 312, of whom 188 lived in the town itself. In 1930 there were 140 Jews living in Kutna Hora and less than 10 living in Malin. Only 3 of Kutna Hora's 140 Jews declared their nationality as Jewish; the rest considered themselves to be Czech. THE HOLOCAUST As a result of the Munich Agreement of September, 1938, the Republic of Czechoslovakia was dissolved. Shortly thereafter, on March 15, 1939 Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the Jews living there. Between April and June of 1942, most of the Jews of Kutna Hora and the vicinity were deported to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were sent to concentration and death camps where most were killed. Meanwhile, 70 documents, 35 books, and 105 ritual objects were sent from Kutna Hora to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR After the war Jews did not return to Kutna Hora. The synagogue building of Kutna Hora was turned into a Czechoslovak Hussite church and the synagogue building at Zbraslavice was turned into a garage. The synagogue building in Malin was demolished by the authorities during the 1960s, and Malesov's synagogue was destroyed in 1987.

Kyjov German: Gaya, Geyen A town in the Southern Moravian Region, Hodonin District, Czech Republic Until 1918 Kyjov was part of the Austrian Empire. Between the two World Wars, and during the postwar communist era (until 1993), it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. Kyjov was the only royal city in which Jews were permitted to live, albeit with restrictions. A synagogue was built in 1506 (it would be demolished in 1851). The rights of Kyjov's Jews were protected by a 1613. In 1650 Jews were able to remain in Kyjov while those who lived in communities that had not been in existence before 1618 were expelled. Though the town's residents petitioned several times for the Jews of Kyjov to be expelled, the royal charter was obeyed. In 1651 the Jews of Kyjov were permitted to distill spirits. By 1688 there were 12 Jewish homes in Kyjov. In 1727 the Jews were segregated into a Jewish Quarter. Later, after the emancipation of Jews throughout the Austrian Empire in 1848 and residence restrictions were lifted, the Jewish Quarter remained as an autonomous political community until the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918. During World War I a large refugee camp near Kyjov was administered by the community. After the war the Czechoslovak central authorities prevented the local authorities from expelling its inhabitants and they were allowed to stay. Seventy-four Jewish families were permitted to live in Kyjov under the familiants law that governed residence restrictions for Jews. The community grew from 427 in 1830 to 510 in 1848. In 1869 there were 884 Jews in the community, and 820 in 1890. In 1900 there were 620 Jews living in Kyjov. In 1930 the community numbered 319 (7% of the total population). THE HOLOCAUST The Munich Agreement of September 1938 resulted in the dissolution of the Republic of Czechoslovakia and the annexation of the Sudeten Region to Nazi Germany. The refugee camp that had once served those fleeing from war-torn areas during World War I was reopened for 670 refugees from the Sudeten Region and for refugees from Vienna. Shortly thereafter, however, in March 1939, the area of Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the Jews living there. The Nazis used the refugee camp to assemble all the Jews from Kyjov and the surrounding district. Early in 1943 four transports deported a total of 2,852 people from the refugee camp to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were sent to concentration and death camps, where most perished. Ritual objects and synagogue equipment were sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. The Nazis destroyed the synagogue, the two Jewish cemeteries, and all remnants of the Jewish Quarter. POSTWAR After the Holocaust, Kyjov became the center for the Jewish communities in the region, with authority over the communities of Hodonin, Holesov, Kromeriz, Uhersky Brod, and Vsetin. In 1959 there were about 300 Jews in all of these communities combined. The community of Kyjov also cared for the community of Bzenec, and opened a prayer room in the town in 1956. In 1956 a memorial to the victims of the Holocaust was dedicated in the cemetery.

Lazne Kynzvart German: Bad Koenigswart A spa town in the Karlovy Vary Region, Czech Republic Jews lived in Lazne Kynzvart as early as the beginning of the 14th century; the cemetery dates to 1405. In 1430, after it had absorbed a number of Jews who had been expelled from Cheb (Eger), the community numbered 180 families. According to legend, the synagogue was renovated in 1608 with the help of Jesuits whom the Lazne Kynzvart Jews had helped when they were being persecuted by the Hussites during the Reformation. Beginning at the end of the 17th century, and for the next 200 years, Lazne Kynzvart was the center of the district rabbinate. In 1724 there were nine Jewish families in the town. At the beginning of the 19th century the Jewish community was under the protection of Prince Metternich. In 1848 Jews throughout the Austrian Empire were emancipated, and residence restrictions were lifted. As a result, Jews began moving to larger towns and cities in search of greater economic and educational opportunities. Many Jews from Lazne Kynzvart left for Marienbad, among other areas, and by the end of the 19th century the Jewish population of Lazne Kyzvart had declined significantly. In 1902 there were 51 Jews living in Lazne Kyzvart itself, as well as in the surrounding villages. By 1933 there were only 4 families living in the town and the surrounding area. The Koenigswarter banking family was from Lazne Kynzvart. THE HOLOCAUST In March, 1938 the region of Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of violence and discrimination against the area's Jews. At this point the last of Lazne Kynzvart's Jews left the town. Their abandoned homes, as well as Lazne Kynzvart's synagogue, were desecrated and destroyed in 1938. Nazis took tombstones from the cemetery and placed them, face up, to pave the road. Beginning in 1941 Jews throughout the Czech lands were sent to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were deported to concentration and death camps, where most perished. POSTWAR Some tombstones were removed from the cemetery and sent to the Jewish cemetery in Marianske Lazne (Marienbad). In 2005 the town observed the 600th anniversary of the cemetery.

Liberec German: Reichenberg The fifth-largest city in the Czech Republic Until 1918 Liberec and the surrounding region were part of the Austrian Empire. Between the two World Wars, and during the postwar communist era, until 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. Between 1938 and 1945 it was part of the Sudeten Region. A reconciliation building stands on the site of the synagogue that was destroyed in November, 1938. The building includes a synagogue for the Jewish community of northern Bohemia. The building also houses a public library. In 2008 a memorial to the victims of the Holocaust was unveiled in the Jewish cemetery. The cemetery itself, which was neglected during the communist era, was returned to the Jewish community in 1992, beginning a period of restoration. The cemetery includes special sections for children, suicides, and refugees. It also holds the remains transported from the Jewish cemetery of Jablonec nad Nisou, which was razed in 1968 to make room for construction. The Jewish cemetery if Liberec can be accessed with permission. HISTORY There were 60 Jews living in Liberec in 1582, though at a certain point Jews were forbidden from living in the town. There was no community in the city during the 18th and first half of the 19th century. Although there were 57 Jews living in Liberec in 1811, their residence there was illegal; since 1776 Jews were only permitted in the town during the week. In 1799 and 1810 all of the city's Jews were evicted from private homes and provided with special inns to stay at when they arrived in the city for business purposes. In spite of these restrictions, Jews did manage to contribute significantly to the local economy; Jewish wool dealers in particular, including Simon von Laemel, were among the developers of the textile industry. In 1848 Jews throughout the Austrian Empire were emancipated, and residence and economic restrictions were subsequently lifted. At that point Jews began to (legally) settle in the city. A congregation was founded in 1863 and a synagogue was dedicated in 1889. In addition to the synagogue, there was also a prayer room, Achdus Yisroel, that served the city's Orthodox community. In 1912 there were 1,240 Jews in the city (3.4% of the total population) and in 1930 there were 1,392 (3.6%). THE HOLOCAUST The Munich Agreement of September 1938 resulted in the dissolution of the Republic of Czechoslovakia, as well as the annexation of the Sudeten Region to Nazi Germany; Liberec became the capital of the newly formed Reichsgau of the Sudetenland. After the annexation, almost all of the Jews fled Liberec. The 30 who remained were eventually arrested. Liberec's synagogue was destroyed on Nobember 10, 1938. POSTWAR A Jewish community was refounded after the war, made up mostly of Jews from Subcarpathian Ruthenia. By 1946 there were 1,211 Jews living in the city, including 37 who were originally from Liberec. In 1954 a memorial plaque for Holocaust victims was erected. This plaque was restored in 1987, along with the prayer room.

Lipnik nad Becvou Referred to as Leipnik in Jewish sources German: Leipnik A small town in the Olomouc Region, Czech Republic One of the older cemeteries has a small number of tombstones that are still standing. The older cemetery was restored during the 1990s by Jewish groups from abroad. The new cemetery that was opened in 1883 has a large number of tombstones dating from the late 19th century to the 20th century, as well as the ruins of the pre-burial house. Both cemeteries can be accessed freely. HISTORY Sources from 1540 mention a synagogue, though at that point Jews had been living in the town for at least a century. In fact, in 1567 a third Jewish cemetery was opened (a fourth would be opened in 1883). At that time most of Lipnik's Jews were engaged in textile production and in importing livestock from Poland. In 1570 the Jews were granted residence rights in Lipnik in perpetuity, in exchange for payment. By 1665 there were 40 Jewish families living in Lipnik. In 1788 the number of Jewish families permitted by law to live in Lipnik was 255. The rabbis who served the community included Moses Simson Bacharach (1632-1644), who composed a selichah (penitential prayer) commemorating the destruction of the town by Swedish troops in 1643, during the Thirty Years' War, Isaac Eulenburg (1652-1657), and Isaiah b. Shabbetai Sheftel Horowitz (1658-1673). Under rabbis Baruch Fraenkel-Teomim (1802-1828), Solomon Guetsch (1832-1854), and Moses Bloch (1856-1877), the local yeshiva attracted students from all over Europe. Rabbi F. Hillel (1892--1928) wrote a history of the community. Rabbi Binyamin Wolf Eiger (1756-1795), the uncle and teacher of Rabbi Akiva Eiger, also served as the community's rabbi, and taught in the yeshiva. In 1794 there were 975 Jews living in Lipnik. The Jewish population grew to 1,259 in 1830. In 1848 Jews throughout the Austrian Empire were emancipated, and the economic and residence restrictions under which they had lived were lifted. Two years later the community was constituted as a political community, and by 1857 there were 1,687 Jews living in Lipnik. The Jewish population growth in Lipnik was temporary, as Jews throughout the region began moving to larger towns and cities, seeking more economic and educational opportunities. In 1880 there were 485 Jews and 453 non-Jews living in the town. In 1900 294 Jews and 711 non-Jews lived in Lipnik. By 1921 only 212 Jews remained in the town and in 1930 the community numbered 154 (2% of the total population). Among the notable figures from Lipnik were the industrialists David and Wilhelm Guttmann, who established an institution for the poor in 1903, in their mother's house. THE HOLOCAUST In 1942 the Jews of Lipnik were deported to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were sent to a number of concentration and death camps. Before being sent to Terezin, ritual objects and synagogue equipment was sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR Jewish communal life was not renewed after the war. In 1948 the synagogue was turned into a Hussite Church. Though the building itself is standing, its appearance has been significantly altered.

Litomerice German: Leitmeritz A town in the Czech Republic For information about the town of Lovosice (German: Lobositz), see below Litomerice is located at the intersection of the Labe and Ohre Rivers (German: Elbe and Eger Rivers), approximately 40 miles (64km) northwest of Prague. Until 1918 Litomerice was part of the Austrian Empire. Between the two World Wars, and during the postwar communist era, until 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. Between 1938 and 1945 Litomerice was one of the municipalities of the Sudeten Region. The Jewish section of the local cemetery has tombstones dating from the late 19th century through the 20th century. It also includes a memorial to the victims of the Holocaust. HISTORY Jews are mentioned in the town's founding charter (1057) as salt merchants, making Litomerice the first town in Bohemia, after Prague, to mention Jews. By 1411 a Jewish Quarter had been established. In 1514 the city council protected its poor Jewish artisans from the financial demands of non-local lords, and in 1529 the Bohemian royal authorities demanded that the town's mayor provide protection for the Jews. In 1540 Ferdinand I voided a permit that allowed the Jews to trade freely in wine, and the following year, after a massacre, the Jews were expelled from the town. Litomerice was granted the privilege forbidding Jews from settling there in 1546. At that point, the former synagogue was converted into a hospital (though the Hebrew inscription on the building's exterior was preserved). In 1584 Jews were permitted to attend the town fairs, but it was not until Jews throughout the Austrian Empire were emancipated, and residence restrictions were subsequently lifted, that a Jewish community was able to be reestablished in Litomerice. Six Jewish families settled in Litomerice in 1851, and by 1863 there were 100 Jews living in the town. The community was officially constituted in 1875 and a synagogue was dedicated in 1883. There were 616 Jews living in the town in 1921. The community of Litomerice became a center for other, smaller communities in the region, including the eventually infamous town of Terezin (German: Theresienstadt). Between the two World Wars, the newly constituted Republic of Czechoslovakia recognized the Jews as a national minority, prompting an increased interest in, and engagement with, Zionism. The Litomerice agricultural school included a training center whose goal was to prepare Jewish youth for eventual settlement in Mandate Palestine. The Zionist politician Emil Margulies lived in Litomerice. This sense of Jewish nationalism can be seen in the results of the 1930 census; the community numbered 425 people (2.3% of the total population), of whom 143 declared their nationality as Jewish. THE HOLOCAUST The Munich Agreement of September, 1938 resulted in the dissolution of the Republic of Czechoslovakia and the annexation of the Sudeten Region, which included Litomerice, to Nazi Germany. Most of the Jews living in Litomerice subsequently fled to other regions, including Bohemia and Moravia; the few Jews who remained in the town were arrested and deported to concentration camps. Those Jews who fled to the region of Bohemia and Moravia would not remain safe for long. In March, 1939 Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the area's Jews. Beginning in 1941 Czech Jews were sent to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were deported to a number of concentration and death camps, where most perished. During World War II a branch of the Flossenburg concentration camp, along with a crematorium, were established in Litomerice. After the war, staff members who worked in Terezin were tried in Litomerice. THE COMMUNITY OF LOVOSICE There was also a Jewish community on the opposite bank of the Elbe River from Litomerice. According to oral tradition, the community was founded by the Jews who had been expelled from Litomerice in 1541, though the first documentary evidence attesting to the presence of Jews in the town dates to 1704. During18th century there were 17 Jewish homes in the city. The Jews of Lovosice worked in shipping, and developed the business of shipping products on the Elbe to Germany. They also dealt in chocolate production. The prominent Hoenigsberg family lived in the town for some time. In 1930 there were 201 people living in the community. The fate of the community during World War II, which was also located in the annexed Sudeten Region, was similar to that of the community of Litomerice.

Lostice German: Loschitz A town in the Olomouc Region, Czech Republic Lostice is located 18 miles (29km) southeast of the city of Olomouc. Until 1918 Lostice and the surrounding region were part of the Austrian Empire. Between the two World Wars, and during the postwar era, until 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The synagogue building underwent a major restoration in 2011. After another restoration in 2014, it was officially opened as an educational and cultural center. The center is administered by Respect and Tolerance, an organization dedicated to documenting, researching, and teaching about Jewish history and culture in northern Moravia. The center includes a permanent exhibition about local Jewish history, the Otto Wolf Library, which was opened in 2008, as well as a Holocaust memorial. The sanctuary's pews are from the synagogue of Olomouc, which was destroyed by the Nazis in 1939. The Jewish cemetery has tombstones dating from the late 17th century through the 20th century, in addition to a new pre-burial house. The cemetery is owned by the Jewish community of Olomouc and can be freely accessed. One of the Torah scrolls from Lostice that was sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague during World War II has been on permanent loan to Congregation Ohev Shalom in Wallingford, Pennsylvania, since 1980. Another Torah scroll from Lostice is on permanent loan to Congregation Hakafa in Glencoe, Illinois. In 2005 the rabbi and a number of congregants from Congregation Hakafa, took their Torah to Lostice, where they conducted the first services in the synagogue since the Nazi occupation. HISTORY The first records of Jews living in Lostice date to 1544. At that point, during the middle of the 16th century, there were 7 Jewish families lived in the town. Other records from 1571 mention a synagogue and a Jewish school; a cemetery had been consecrated in 1554. In 1581 the community purchased a piece of land, possibly in order to build a synagogue, and started keeping a register for the community. During this period the community was led by a Jewish judge and two jurors. During the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) many Jews left Lostice. As a result, by1656 only 10 of the 21 Jewish houses were occupied. However, the following year Jewish refugees began arriving from Austria and the Ukraine, and the community began to grow rapidly. By 1727 there were 80 Jewish families (328 people) living in 17 houses, all of which were located near the town's Catholic Church. That same year the Jews were moved to a ghetto, which was made up of Novosadi Street (later renamed Ztracena Street) and parts of two other adjoining streets west of the town square. The wooden synagogue, which had been built in 1651, was also moved to the ghetto. In the beginning the ghetto contained 17 houses, though the number of houses eventually grew to 25. The ghetto functioned autonomously, and contained its own town hall. By the end of the 18th century 71 Jewish families were permitted to live in Lostice, all of whom were required to live in the ghetto. A number of communal institutions were established during the 18th century. In 1743 the local ruler ordered that a new Jewish cemetery be opened, though there is no evidence that any Jewish burials actually took place there. An elementary school was opened in 1782 in the community center. The teachers were Catholic; Jacob Rosenblum, one of the few Jewish teachers, only taught between 1791 and 1794. A turning point came in 1804 when Emanuel Goldschmied was hired; he would ultimately teach at the school until his death in 1839. After Goldschmied, a number of Jewish teachers began teaching at the school. In 1791 there were 414 Jews (210 men and 204 women) living in Lostice. That year a major fire broke out, and 5 of the 22 Jewish houses were destroyed. Eventually, in 1805, a new synagogue was built to replace the old wooden synagogue. The community also established a women's society, as well as a society to aid the poor. A chevra kaddisha was formed in 1820. Among the rabbis who served the community of Lostice was Rabbi Gershon b. Abraham Reik, who is mentioned in sources from 1708. Rabbi Dr. Asriel Guenzig was the community's last rabbi, and served from 1899 until 1918. Subsequently, the community had no rabbi of its own; when necessary it referred to Rabbi Professor Berthold Oppenheim, who served in the city of Olomouc. Perhaps the most famous rabbi to serve the community of Lostice was Rabbi Abraham Neuda (1812-1854). Rabbi Neuda attended yeshiva in Mikulov (German: Nikolsburg), and studied under Rabbi Nechemya Trebitsch, the chief rabbi of Moravia; secretly, however, Neuda also studied secular subjects with his fellow students. When the community of Lostice appointed Neuda to succeed his father as the community's rabbi without the approval of Rabbi Trebitsch, Rabbi Trebitsch was incensed, and refused to ordain Neuda; Rabbi Trebitsch was angered both by the threat to his authority, as well as the fact that Neuda had adopted certain practices of the German Reform Jewish movement, including giving sermons in German. A major controversy broke out and the provincial government was forced to become involved. In the end Rabbi Neuda was ordained, and the provincial government rescinded Rabbi Trebitsch's privilege to appoint rabbis. Rabbi Neuda was married to Fanny Schmiedl, herself the daughter of a rabbi. In 1854 Schmiedl wrote the first prayer book that is known to have been written for women, by a woman. In addition to the more than 50 prayers relating to different aspects of a woman's life, Schmiedl's prayer book included information about the public and private events in the life of a Jewish woman. Schmidl's prayer book was called "Hours of Devotion: Book of Prayer and edification for Jewish Wives and Young Women." Twelve years after its initial publication, the prayer book was translated into English and published in the United States. The book also became incredibly popular throughout Central Europe; more than 30 editions were published, the last of which was published in Basel, Switzerland, in 1968. Schmiedl also wrote stories about the domestic life of Jews in Bohemia and Moravia. Jews throughout the Austrian Empire were emancipated and granted full civil rights in 1848. Additionally, residence and economic restrictions were subsequently repealed, allowing Jews to live wherever they wanted, and enter into a variety of professional fields that had heretofore been closed to them. During the year of the emancipation, 483 Jews were living in Lostice (17% of the total population). With the removal of residence restrictions, however, many Jews throughout the region began migrating to larger towns and cities, seeking new economic and educational opportunities. By 1880 the community of Lostice had dwindled to 193 members, of whom only 87 lived in the town itself while the rest lived in neighboring villages. In 1900 there were 115 members left in the community. Also not helping matters was the fire that broke out in 1928, destroying most of the houses in the Jewish Quarter. After the emancipation of 1848, Jews were able to enter the academic professions. Until then, Jews throughout Moravia lived on lands belonging to the local rulers; in exchange for being allowed to live on the land, the Jews paid the rulers protection money and provided them with various services. Most Jews worked as merchants; there are records of Jewish merchants at the Leipzig fairs from 1697 to 1748. Others worked as craftsmen. At the end of the 18th century the Jews of Lostice owned a variety of shops, as well as a distillery of spirits. Two Jews worked as innkeepers, and one was known as a "healer of wounds." A number of small villages in the area were affiliated with the Jewish community of Lostice. These included: Mohelnice (German: Mueglitz). Mohelnice is located about 2 miles (3 km) northwest of Lostice. The Jews living in Mohelnice had a prayer house and, beginning in 1905, a separate section in the general cemetery; Lotovel (German: Littau). Lotovel is located approximately 7 miles (11km) southeast of Lostice. During the 19th century the Jewish community of Lotovel opened a prayer house. The Jewish architect Heinrich Kulka was born in Litovel in 1900 and died in Oakland, New Zealand, in 1971. In 1921 about 200 Jews belonged to the greater Lostice community. At that time the community's president was Sigfried Eckstein. The vast majority of the Jews in the area spoke German. The Republic of Czechoslovakia, which was established at the end of World War I, recognized the Jews as a national minority with concurrent rights. This spurred the growth of Zionist activity in the area, particularly at Mohelnice, whose community members purchased membership and voting rights before the elections to the 15th Zionist Congress in 1927. During the 1930s there were still approximately 200 members in the community, 55 of whom lived in Lostice itself and (about 20% of the total population). By 1938, however, only 8 Jewish families remained in the area. THE HOLOCAUST The Republic of Czechoslovakia was dissolved following the Munich Agreement of September, 1938. Shortly thereafter, in March, 1939, Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the area's Jews. Beginning at the end of 1941 Czech Jews were deported to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were sent to a number of concentration and death camps, where most perished. Before they were sent to Terezin, 700 documents, 225 books, and 195 ritual objects from the Jewish community of Lostice were transferred to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. In 1945 Jews who died during the death march from Auschwitz were buried at the cemetery of Mohelnice. POSTWAR Only one member from the community of Lostice survived the war. The synagogue building, which was first used as a warehouse, served as a municipal museum featuring exhibits on the life of the Jewish community between 1966 and 1980. In 1980 the building was turned into a music and art school.

Louny German: Laun A town in the Usti nad Labem Region, Czech Republic Louny is located on the Ohre River. Until 1918 it was part of the Austrian Empire. Between the two World Wars, and after World War II until 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The reconstructed synagogue serves as a municipal archive. During a 2013 visit by a group from Old York Road Temple-Beth Am the town's mayor told the group that the space would eventually be renovated into a Jewish museum. Louny's Jewish cemetery includes a pre-burial house with a tahara. The cemetery is owned by the Jewish community of Teplice, and can be accessed freely. One of the Torah scrolls from Louny which had been sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague during World War II has been in Old York Road Temple-Beth Am, in Abington, Pennsylvania, since 1973. In April, 2013 a group from the congregation traveled to Louny. On June 23, 2013, the town held a large prayer ceremony celebrating 600 years of a Jewish presence in the region. A plaque was placed on the outside wall of what was once the synagogue building, with the inscription "In memory of the citizens of our city who were victims of the Holocaust 1939-1945." HISTORY Jews are first mentioned as living in Louny in 1254, when they were already living on a Jewish Street and had a synagogue and a cemetery. Most Jews worked as moneylenders and land dealers. At that point the community was affiliated with the congregation in Prague. By 1505 there were 12 Jewish houses in Louny. In 1541, after one of the Jewish townspeople was accused of host desecration, the community was expelled. The Jews returned, however, and between the expulsion of various Jewish communities in Bohemia in 1541 and a major fire that broke out in the town in 1655 the community grew. Residence restrictions eventually allowed only one Jewish family to settle in the town, though at the end of the 18th century there were 43 Jews living in the town illegally. In 1848 Jews throughout the Austrian Empire were emancipated and granted full civil rights; economic and residence restrictions were subsequently removed. At that point, Jews returned to live in Louny. A synagogue was soon built, and was consecrated in 1871. A new cemetery was established in 1874. The community also established a German-language Jewish school that enrolled approximately 40 students. Most of the community's Jews spoke German until 1893, when they adopted Czech as the official language. In 1876 there were 44 Jewish taxpayers living in Louny. The Jewish population of Louny and the 18 surrounding villages in 1902 was 666. In 1930 there were 205 Jews living in Louny (1.8% of the total population), most of whom were assimilated. THE HOLOCAUST In March, 1939 the region of Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the Jews living there. The Nazis closed the synagogue in October, 1941. By 1942 all of the Jews from the community had been sent to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto, before being deported to concentration and death camps. Before being sent to Terezin, ritual objects and equipment from the synagogue were sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague.

Lovosice German: Lobositz A small town in northern Bohemia, Usti nad Labem Region, Czech Republic Lovosice is located 4 miles (6km) east of Terezin and 37 miles (60km) north of Prague. Until 1918 Lovosice and the region were part of the Austrian Empire. Between the two World Wars, and after World War II until 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. Between 1938 and 1945 Lovosice was one of the municipalities of the Sudeten Region. The old cemetery was destroyed in 1956. The newer cemetery, which was consecrated in 1872, has a number of tombstones that have remained standing, in addition to unmarked mass graves. The cemetery also includes a pre-burial house, as well as a monument to the old cemetery, and a separate entrance for kohanim. The cemetery can be accessed freely. HISTORY It is believed that the Jewish community of Lovosice was founded in 1541 by Jews who were expelled from town of Litomerice. In 1702 there were ten houses that were registered in the town as owned by Jews; among them was a building that housed a beit midrash. Eventually there would be 17 houses in the Jewish part of the town; this included the synagogue building, which was erected in 1762, the community building, and the rabbi’s home. A Jewish judge served as the administrative leader of the Jewish community. The synagogue was renovated for the first time in 1800 after being damaged in a fire; the interior would later be renovated again just before World War I, and the exterior wall would be renovated in 1924. The rabbis who served the community included: Rabbi Heinrich Saar (1886-1905), Rabbi Salomon Levy (1905-1906), Rabbi Ignaz Levy (1906-1907), Rabbi Heinrich Brock (1907-1908), Dr. Salomon Frankfurter (1908-1912), Dr. Emil Friedmann (1912- 1916), and Dr. Mortiz Mueller (1917-1921). In 1921 Rabbi Ignaz Levy returned to serve the community. The community's leaders included: Michael Kaill, who was the head of the Jewish community in 1791, Jacob Glaassner, Hermann Schiller, Max Gans-Schiller, Friedrich Gratum, Dr. Karl Glaassner, Wilhelm Bergwein, Max Wilhelm Schiller, Dr. Marcus Lowit (1914-1930), and Ernest Schwartz. The most prominent Jewish family in Lovosice was the Wohl family, though some members of the family converted to Christianity. The old cemetery was dedicated in 1714 and was also used by the Jewish communities of Litomerice and Terezin. Another cemetery was dedicated around 1872. The latter cemetery had a chapel (zidduk hadin pavilion) and a special entrance for kohanim. Among the community institutions were a women’s society, which was founded in 1891, and a chevra kaddisha, whose regulations were approved in 1914. The town did not have a Jewish school, and Jewish children attended the local schools. Most of the Jews living in the town spoke German. In the beginning, Jews worked as tobacco merchants, butchers, and glaziers. Meanwhile, the many Jews who lived in neighboring villages worked as grain exporters, mostly to Germany, via the Labe (German: Elbe) River. Jews also founded a tannery and were involved in establishing the chocolate and sweets industry. Edward Klein was the manager of a factory for fruit preserves. Later, manufacturing of men’s clothing was one of the main sources of income for the local Jews. Dr. Ignaz Freund worked as the town doctor during the 19th century. During World War I Jews from Lovosice enlisted in the Austrian Army and five fell in battle. The Republic of Czechoslovakia, which was established after the war, recognized the Jews as a national minority, with concurrent rights. This prompted an interest in Zionism, which became active in Lovosice. In 1921 there were 270 Jews living in Lovosice. In 1933 the Jewish population was 320, including 70 who lived in the surrounding neighborhoods. THE HOLOCAUST The Munich Agreement of September, 1938, resulted in the dissolution of the Republic of Czechoslovakia, and the annexation of the Sudeten Region, which included Lovosice, to Nazi Germany. At this point, the vast majority of Jews living in Lovosice left the town, many for areas in Bohemia and Moravia. The Nazis destroyed the synagogue in Lovosice. The region of Bohemia and Moravia ultimately became a protectorate of Nazi Germany in March, 1939, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the area's Jews. Beginning in 1941 Czech Jews were sent to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were deported to concentration and death camps, where most were killed. POSTWAR In 1946 a public funeral was held in Lovosice for the Czech Jews who were killed during the last days of the Nazi occupation on roads leading to the concentration camp in Terezin. The Jewish Quarter was eventually demolished by the authorities. The old cemetery was demolished in 1956 and its zidduk hadin pavilion was given to the general cemetery.

Luka German: Luck A village and municipality, Liberec Region, Czech Republic According to tradition, Jews from Bavaria founded the town in the 11th century; there are local records of Jews living in the town in 1198. Records from 1432 mention a Jewish "place of worship." Later, in 1842, the synagogue and community records were damaged in a fire. During the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) the community was nearly decimated by the plague. The Jews from Luka, like those from Hroznetin (German: Lichtenstadt), did business in nearby Carlsbad. During the 19th century Feibel (Phillip) Kohn served as the mayor for 28 years. A Reform and an Orthodox rabbi served the community. In 1848, Jews throughout the Austrian Empire, including Luka, were emancipated and residence and economic restrictions were subsequently lifted. As a result, many Jews throughout the region began moving to larger towns and cities, seeking greater economic and educational opportunities. In Luka, Jews had begun moving elsewhere even before 1848 and the emancipation served only to accelerate the community's decline. In 1850 there were 1,150 Jews lived in Luka (80% of the total population). By 1869 the population had dropped to 446. By 1930 there were not enough Jews living in Luka for a minyan. THE HOLOCAUST By the time the Nazis invaded, few to no Jews were living in Luka. On November 10, 1938,the Nazis burned down the synagogue. They also sold tombstones from the Jewish cemetery to a stonemason.

Luka German: Luck A village and municipality, Liberec Region, Czech Republic According to tradition, Jews from Bavaria founded the town in the 11th century; there are local records of Jews living in the town in 1198. Records from 1432 mention a Jewish "place of worship." Later, in 1842, the synagogue and community records were damaged in a fire. During the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) the community was nearly decimated by the plague. The Jews from Luka, like those from Hroznetin (German: Lichtenstadt), did business in nearby Carlsbad. During the 19th century Feibel (Phillip) Kohn served as the mayor for 28 years. A Reform and an Orthodox rabbi served the community. In 1848, Jews throughout the Austrian Empire, including Luka, were emancipated and residence and economic restrictions were subsequently lifted. As a result, many Jews throughout the region began moving to larger towns and cities, seeking greater economic and educational opportunities. In Luka, Jews had begun moving elsewhere even before 1848 and the emancipation served only to accelerate the community's decline. In 1850 there were 1,150 Jews lived in Luka (80% of the total population). By 1869 the population had dropped to 446. By 1930 there were not enough Jews living in Luka for a minyan. THE HOLOCAUST By the time the Nazis invaded, few to no Jews were living in Luka. On November 10, 1938,the Nazis burned down the synagogue. They also sold tombstones from the Jewish cemetery to a stonemason.

Marianske Lazne German: Marienbad A spa town, Karlovy Vary Region, Czech Republic A grassy lot with a memorial stone is all that remains of Marienbad's synagogue, which was destroyed on November 10, 1938 (Kristallnacht). The bust in honor of Professor Samuel Basch was stolen in 2013, though the pedestal has remained in its original location. Most of the cemetery's tombstones were uprooted and destroyed by the Nazis. After World War II tombstones were taken from the cemeteries of Tachov and Kynzvart and moved to Marianske Lazne. HISTORY Jews began to settle in Marienbad in 1820; until that point, Jews only went to Marienbad during the health cure season. Both the town itself, as well as the Jewish community, grew during the 19th century, with the Jewish community drawing new arrivals from Drmouly (German: Duerrmaul) and Lazne Kunzvart (Koenigswart). A number of notable figures from Prague prompted the building of a Jewish hospice. The hospice, which was built in 1861, included a prayer room and was built with the help of donations from Jewish visitors to Marienbad. The Jewish hospice was led by the balneologist Heinrich Enoch Kisch, who lived in Marienbad and contributed to its development; a street was eventually named for him. The professor and balneologist Samuel Basch was also instrumental in the town's development; a bust in his honored would be unveiled in 1930, removed by the Nazis, and re-erected in 1987. A congregation was officially organized in 1875, the same year the Jewish cemetery was consecrated, and a synagogue was dedicated in 1884. At that point Marienbad had become very popular among Jews living in the Russian Empire, however notable visitors to the town also included the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, and the writer Franz Kafka. Sholom Aleichem's 1911 novel Marienbad describes the Jewish visitors to the town and the Jewish spa culture there. Though Jews throughout the Austrian Empire, including Marienbad, had been emancipated and granted full civil rights in 1848, a municipal election statute, which was ultimately in force until 1918, barred Jews from being elected to the municipal council. Nonetheless, the Jews of Marienbad were involved in Jewish communal politics; the most striking example of this is when Agudas Yisroel's major assembly (Kenesset HaGedolah) was held in the town. In 1930 there were 405 Jews living in Marienbad (3.3% of the total population). THE HOLOCAUST During the Sudeten Crisis of 1938, after which the Sudeten Region, which included Marienbad, was annexed to Nazi Germany, most of the community left the town. Those who remained were ultimately arrested by the Nazis. The synagogue was burned down, and the site was turned into a park. POSTWAR A Jewish community was re-founded in 1945, mostly by army veterans from Subcarpathian Ruthenia. By 1949 there were 196 Jews living in the community. Additionally, for a time the town hosted a yeshiva for Holocaust survivors. In 1970 the town's retirement home, which included a prayer room and a kosher restaurant, had over 100 residents from all over the country; the home and prayer room were closed in 1972.

Mikulov German: Nikolsburg Yiddish: Nikolsporg, NIkolshburg A town in the region of South Moravia, Czech Republic. The largest and most important Jewish community in Moravia until the mid-19th century. Mikulov is located near the Austrian border. It is 28 miles (45km) south of Brno, and 44 miles (71km) northeast of Vienna. In the beginning, Mikulov was part of Greater Moravia. From 1526 until 1918 it was part of the Austrian Empire. During the interwar period, and after World War II until 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. Between 1938 and 1945 Mikulov was one of the municipalities in the Sudeten Region. Approximately 45 houses that stood in the Jewish Quarter have survived, each of which has been declared a cultural monument. The preserved buildings include what was once the Old Synagogue (Altschul), two cheders, a Jewish nursing home that was established in the middle of the 18th century, remnants of the Ashkenazi Synagogue, and a Jewish school for the deaf. The exterior of the Old Synagogue, which dates to the mid-16th century (the original building, which was built in 1450, was refurbished after a fire), has been preserved. Since the 1990s it has been accessible to the public, and has included an exhibit about the history of the Jewish community of Mikulov. A medieval mikvah (Jewish ritual bath) has been preserved and can be found on what was once known as Bath Square. The Mikulov Municipal Authority has worked with the Association of Friends of Jewish Culture in Mikulov to repair and refurbish parts of the mikvah. The mikvah is open to the public. The Jewish cemetery has been well-preserved and contains approximately 4,000 tombstones, the oldest of which dates to 1605. A ceremonial hall is also located inside the cemetery; once used as a storehouse, it was renovated between 2000 and 2006 by the Jewish community of Brno and is used as an exhibition space devoted to the history of the cemetery and Jewish funeral rites. In 2009 a plaque was affixed to the wall of the building in honor of Rabbi Yehudah Leib ben Betzalel (the Maharal of Prague). A number of prominent rabbis are buried in Mikulov, including Rabbi Shmelke Horowitz and Mordecai Beneth, and their graves are popular sites for pilgrims. The cemetery is open to the public and also offers guided tours. HISTORY The first written evidence of Jews in Mikulov dates to 1369, However, it is believed that an actual Jewish community was established only after 1420, when Jews were expelled from Vienna and Lower Austria. Another expulsion in 1454, this time from Brno and Znojmo, brought more Jews to Mikulov. In 1575 the Dietrichstein family was placed in charge of Mikulov. They were relatively tolerant towards their Jewish citizens; in 1591 they granted the community autonomy, to be led by a Jewish representative (a "Judge of the Jews"). The Dietrichsteins also decided that the Jews would be under their jurisdiction, instead of the municipality's, and allowed them to pay their taxes in money instead of in additional manual labor. Each new lord approved this charter, with occasional modifications, until 1780. Under these conditions the Jewish community of Mikulov began to flourish, and in 1606 there were 1,586 Jews living in the town. The Jews of Mikulov were still subject to anti-Semitism, in spite of their relative privilege. An oral tradition has it that in June 1625 Emperor Ferdinand II visited Mikulov. While passing through the Jewish Quarter a nobleman traveling with him was hit with a stone and died. The emperor threatened that if the person who threw the stone failed to come forward within 3 days, he would expel all the Jews from the town. When the 3 days passed and no one confessed, Rabbi Eliakum sacrificed himself and falsely confessed; as punishment he was blinded. Whether this story is historically true or not, it does indicate a sense of insecurity on the part of Mikulov's Jews regarding whether they would always be protected by the reigning noblemen. Between 1645 and 1646 the plague tore through Mikulov, leaving 964 Jews dead. Soon after, however, the Jewish population rose significantly following the Chmielnicki massacres (1648-1649), which saw a number of refugees seeking a safe haven in the town. As a result, by 1657 there were 146 Jewish families were living in Mikulov. They were joined shortly thereafter by refugees from the second Jewish expulsion from Vienna in 1670. Still later, after the Habsburgs conquered Belgrade in 1688, the Jews from Belgrade who had been ransomed were settled in Mikulov. In spite of laws that limited the number of Jewish families permitted to live in Mikulov, by the reign of Empress Maria Theresa (1740-1780) there were 620 Jewish families living in Mikulov, approximately half of the town's total population. The Jews of Mikulov lived in a separate Jewish Quarter. As a result of the cramped, overcrowded conditions in the Jewish Quarter, a number of fires broke out over the years. In the wake of fires in 1561 and 1584, it became forbidden to build wooden buildings. A fire in 1719 destroyed much of the Jewish Quarter, including the Old Synagogue, which had been built around 1450, and the community archive. Though there was some initial opposition to reconstructing the synagogue on the part of the local lord, the court Jew Samson Wertheimer, who was then in Vienna, prevailed upon him to allow for the synagogue's reconstruction. In 1789, when 57 Jewish communities in the region were officially recognized by the authorities, there were 600 Jewish families living in Mikulov. In 1793 there were 3,000 Jews living in the town. In 1829 there were 3,237 Jews living in Mikulov. Before the construction of the railroad, Mikulov was located on a major trade route between Vienna and Brno, a fact that contributed greatly to its success and the success of the local Jews. Most of the town's Jews were traveling peddlers, or traded in wines (particularly a plum wine that was unique to Mikulov), textiles, candles, and animal hides, while others worked as tailors, butchers, and cobblers. Moravia was the seat of the chief rabbinate of Moravia beginning in the mid-16th century. As a result, a number of prominent rabbis came to serve the town's Jewish community. Yehudah Leib ben Betzalel (the Maharal of Prague) was probably the community's first rabbi (1553-1573). Other rabbis included Moshe ben Aharon Lvov (Lemberger), Rabbi Gershon Politz (1758-1772), the kabbalah and Jewish mysticism scholar Rabbi Shmelke Horowitz (1772-1778), Rabbi Gershon Hayes (1778-1789), Rabbi Mordecai Beneth (1789-1842), Rabbi Nehemyah Trebitsch (1831-1842), and Samson Raphael Hirsch (1847-1851). Mikulov was home to one of the most prominent yeshivas in Moravia, which flourished under the leadership of Rabbi Beneth. Students from all over Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary came to study in Mikulov. The yeshiva would produce Torah scholars until it closed in 1856. In addition to the yeshiva, Mikulov was home to 12 synagogues, each of which was named either according to its congregation's occupation (ex. Cobblers), the names of its philanthropists (ex. Abeles), the congregation's origins (ex. Wiener), the religious customs (ex. Ashkenazic), or the age of the synagogue (Old, New). There was also a Hebrew printing press, which functioned between 1762 and 1779, and at the turn of the 18th century. A German Jewish elementary school was established in 1782, a German Jewish high school and vocational school were opened in 1839, and in 1844 Hirsch Kolisch opened a school in Mikulov for the Jewish deaf. The community also had its own chevra kaddisha, which had been established 1653, a Jewish hospital that was opened in1680, a women’s society, and the "Nachstenliebe" men's society. In 1836 the gates that separated the Jewish Quarter from the rest of the town were removed. This was progress for the town's Jews. However, the town began to decline shortly thereafter, prompted by the 1838 decision to bypass the town on the Vienna-Brno railroad. Shortly thereafter, in 1848, Jews throughout the Austrian Empire were emancipated, and granted full civil rights. Residence and economic restrictions were also subsequently removed. As a result of this newfound freedom of movement, Jews throughout the region began moving to larger cities, seeking more economic and educational opportunities. Mikulov was no exception to this trend, and many Jews from the town began moving to Brno and to Vienna. From a population peak in 1857 of 3,680, the population dropped to 1,500 by 1869. Subsequently the Jewish population of Mikulov kept falling: to 1,213 in 1880, to 900 in 1900. Indeed, by 1900 the town whose population had once been mostly Jewish, had become 60% Christian. There were 573 living in Mikulov in 1921, and 437 in 1930 (6.5% of the town's total population). Additionally, by 1868 only 5 of Mikulov's original 12 synagogues had remained active; by the twentieth century only two synagogues continued to function. In 1851, after Rabbi Hirsch moved to Frankfurt/Main, the seat of the chief rabbinate of Moravia was moved to Brno. Local rabbis who continued to serve the community in Mikulov included Rabbi Hirsch Teltscher, Rabbi Isaac Wienberger, Rabbi Solomon Katasch, Rabbi Dr. Meir Feuchtwanger (1861-1888), Rabbi Dr. David Feuchtwanger (1892-1903), Rabbi Dr. Moritz Levin (1903-1918), and Rabbi Dr. Alfred Willman (1919-1938). At the start of World War I a refugee camp was built approximately 3 miles (5km) from Mikulov for those fleeing from Galicia and Bukovina, including approximately 8,000 Jews. The Jewish community of Mikulov established a school and a yeshiva for the children of these refugees. Most returned to their towns of origin after the war. Many Jews from Mikulov enlisted in the army during World War I, 25 of whom fell in battle and were buried in the Jewish cemetery. The Republic of Czechoslovakia, which was established in 1918 in the wake of World War I, recognized the Jews as a national minority with concurrent rights, prompting many to become active in the Zionist movement. In 1920 a Zionist society was organized in Mikulov. A Jewish sport club, which had been founded in 1910, became a local branch of the Maccabi sports league during the 1920s; Maccabi games were held at Mikulov in 1933. Twenty-eight Jews from Mikulov took part in the elections to the 20th Zionist Congress in 1937. In 1936 the Jewish Museum for Moravia and Silesia was established in Mikulov. It contained old parchment manuscripts, curtains of the Holy Ark, ritual objects, a 1653 register from the chevra kaddisha, as well as other other documents and paintings. The collection was moved to Brno in 1938, and then to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague in 1942. Notable figures from Mikulov include the legal scholar Joseph von Sonnenfels (1732-1817, though he converted to Christianity as a child), the historian Abraham Trebitsch (1760-1840), the author Eduard Kulke (1831-1897), who wrote stories about Moravian Jewry, the author and journalist Heinrich Landesmann (known as Hieronymus Lorm, 1821-1902), and the Berlin actor Max Pohl (1855-1935). The Jewish surname Naach/Nash is derived from an abbreviation of the town's name. THE HOLOCAUST Following the Munich Agreement of September, 1938, the Republic of Czechoslovakia was dissolved and the Sudeten Region, which included Mikulov, was annexed to Nazi Germany. At that point nearly all of Mikulov's Jews fled the town. Those who remained were arrested and transported in 1941 and 1942, first to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto, and then to concentration and death camps where most perished. Along with the collection from the Jewish museum, 1,580 documents, 210 books, and 1,233 ritual objects from the Jewish community of Mikulov were transferred to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. During the war, Jews worked as part of a forced labor battalion at the Mikulov brickworks; 21 Hungarian Jews from the battalion were killed on April 15, 1945 and buried in a mass grave in the Jewish cemetery. POSTWAR In 1948 there were 36 Jews living in Mikulov, most of whom were survivors from the original community. Communal life was not reestablished and by the 1990s there were no Jews left in Mikoluv. Most of the Jewish Quarter was demolished, but the Old Synagogue was used for concerts and museum exhibitions; since 1995 there has been an exhibition about the Jewish community of Mikulov. The community's regulations from the 18th century are kept in the National Library in Jerusalem.

Mlada Boleslav German: Jungbunzlau A city in the Central Bohemian Region, Czech Republic Mlada Boleslav is located on the left bank of the Jizera River, 31 miles (50km) northeast of Prague. Until 1918 Mlada Boleslav and the surrounding region were part of the Austrian Empire. During the interwar period, and between the end of World War II and 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. With the communities of Kolin, Roudnice, and Nachod, Mlada Boleslav was one of the four major Jewish communities of Bohemia known by the Hebrew acronym KRBN. Mlada Boleslav also became known as the "Jerusalem of the Jizera River," attesting to its importance. The Jewish cemetery is owned by the Jewish community of Prague, which funds its continued maintenance. The cemetery has managed to survive relatively intact, and contains tombstones from the 17th century through the 20th century, as well as a pre-burial house. The cemetery can be accessed with permission. HISTORY The Jewish community of Mlada Boleslav is first mentioned in 1471, and is noted in a Hebrew document from 1556. Eleven families lived in the town in 1570, and by 1579 the community was also home to a synagogue. The cemetery was consecrated shortly thereafter, in 1584, and the New School was built at the end of the century. Mlada Boleslav was owned by various noble Czech families until 1594. A Jewish resident of the town, David Fleckeles, contributed a large sum of money (1,000 florins) in order to purchase the city's independence. At the beginning of the 17th century Mlada Boleslav's Jewish Quarter contained 31 houses, a town hall, a hospital, and a mikvah (ritual bath). There were 120 Jewish adults living in Mlada Boleslav in 1615. The Jewish population rose to 775 in 1687, due mainly to an influx of Jews from Poland fleeing the Khmelnytsky Massacres of 1648-1649, and Jews who had been expelled from Vienna in 1670. After a fire in the late 17th century destroyed part of the Jewish Quarter, as well as the synagogue. The community rebuilt the synagogue in 1697, and modeled it after the Maisel synagogue in Prague. Another fire, this time in 1854, prompted the composition and publication of a special selichah (penitential prayer). In 1710 a shopkeeper named David Brandeis was imprisoned after being accused of poisoning a local Christian printer with plum jam. After his release he composed a megillah, titled "Shir HaMa'a lot Le-David" ("A Song of Ascent of David).This megillah was read on the tenth of the Jewish month of Adar, the day of Brandeis' exoneration and release from prison, and the day was celebrated as a local Purim festival, known as the Povidl (Plum Jam) Purim. In 1848 Jews throughout the Austrian Empire were emancipated. This gave Jews in Mlada Boleslav the opportunity to become active in local politics; a number took part in the city's administration, while others were elected to serve as members of the municipality. The Bohemian-Jewish writer Leopold Kompert (1822-1886), who wrote during the 19th century about Jewish life in Bohemia, wrote about Mlada Boleslav in Die Kinder des Randars ("The Randar Children"). He describes Mlada Boleslav as a kind of a Bohemian Chelm; many tales were told of "bumsler shtiklekh" ("pranks") that took place in the town. There was, however, a darker side to life in Mlada Boleslav; in 1897 anti-Jewish riots broke out in the city, a result of national tensions between Czechs and Germans when Jews were often seen as proponents of German culture. The Jewish population numbered 794 in 1834. It rose to 865 (9.1% of the total population) in 1880, at which point the population began to drop. There were 402 Jews living in Mlada Boleslav (2.8% of the total) in 1910, the Jewish population was 419 in 1921; and 264 (1.3%) in 1930. Rabbi Shmuel ben Yosef of Lublin, the author of the Lekhem Rav, was the community's first rabbi and served during the early 17th century. Other rabbis who served in Mlada Boleslav included Moses Isaac Spira, who served circa 1702 and later became the chief rabbi of Bohemia (he was also the father in law of Rabbi Yonatan Eybeshutz), Ezekiel Glogau-Schlesinger, the author of the Mar'eh Yekhezkel, who served until 1821, Isaac Yom Tov Spitz (1824-1842), the son-in-law of Elazar Fleckeles, and Moritz Grunwald (1886-1893), who later became the chief rabbi of Bulgaria. A local Jewish museum was founded in 1922 by Hermann Pollak, who taught in the local Jewish school. During World War II it was shut down and its collection (which included historical archives that dated to the 16th century) was transferred to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague, where they remain. Just before World War II there were 183 Jews living in the city. Among the notable Jews from Mlada Boleslav was the Czech poet, and first Jew to publish in the Czech language, Sigfried Kapper (1821-1879). His house was eventually marked by a memorial tablet. Benjamin Issac (d. 1750), a "Jew merchant of extensive charity," was from Mlada Boleslav; after he moved to London he established a foundation in his name in Mlada Boleslav. The rabbi and Talmudist Meir Fischels (1703-c.1770), who served as the head of the yeshiva and beit din in Prague for forty years, was also from Mlada Boleslav. THE HOLOCAUST In March, 1939 the region of Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the Jews living there. By 1938 ritual objects had already been transferred from the synagogue to the Central Museum in Prague; during the war the synagogue building was used as a warehouse. In January1942 the Jews from Mlada Boleslav and the surrounding districts, a total of 1,041 people, were concentrated in the old castle. From there they were deported to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto before being sent to a number of concentration and death camps. Of the 1,041 people who had been deported to Terezin, only 40 were still alive in November, 1944. POSTWAR After World War II a small congregation was reestablished, administered by the Jewish community of Prague. This newly reestablished community would prove to be short-lived; it ceased functioning during the 1950s. The synagogue, which had been rebuilt in 1697, was demolished in 1962.

Moravsky Krumlov German: Maehrisch-Kromau, Kromau A town in the South Moravian Region, Czech Republic Moravsky Krumlov is located 18 miles (29km) southwest of Brno. Until 1918 it was part of the Austrian Empire. During the interwar period, and between the end of World War II and 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The Jewish cemetery contains approximately 500 tombstones. It is open to the public. HISTORY Jews were mentioned as living in the town in 1402. A synagogue was built in 1547 and the cemetery was consecrated sometime during the 16th century. The familiants law, which governed the number of Jewish families permitted to live in any particular town, limited the number of Jewish families in Moravsky Krumlov to 49. By 1800 there were 43 houses in the town that were owned by Jews, a particularly high number for Moravia. In 1848 Jews throughout the Austrian Empire were emancipated, and residence restrictions were subsequently removed. As a result, many Jews throughout the region began moving to larger towns and cities, seeking greater economic and educational opportunities. Consequently, following the emancipation, the Jewish population of Moravsky Krumlov decreased steadily, from 356 in 1830 to 226 in 1869. In 1880 the town's Jewish population was 140, and in 1900 it was. By 1930 only 34 Jews (0.9% of the total population) remained in the town. After 1848 the Jewish community became a politische gemeinde (an independent political entity), though it relinquished this privilege in 1869. Beginning in 1915 the community was led by Heinrich Flesch, who served as the rabbi of nearby Dolni Kounice. The few Jews that remained in the town during World War II were deported by the Nazis, first to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto, and then to concentration and death camps.

Most German: Brux The capital city of the Most District Most is located between the Central Bohemian Uplands and the Ore Mountains. It is 48 miles (77km) northwest of Prague and 19 miles (approximately 31km) northeast of Usti nad Labem. Until 1918 Most and the surrounding region was part of the Austrian Empire. During the interwar period, and between the end of World War II until 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. Between 1938 and 1945 it was one of the municipalities in the Sudeten Region. The first evidence of Jews living in Most dates to 1393, with a promissory note given to Jewish moneylenders; it is thought, however, that Jews had been living in the city since 1356 when Emperor Karl IV of the House of Luxemburg (1345-1378) allowed both free towns and the rulers of the royal towns of Bohemia to allow Jews to settle within their jurisdictions. The Jews of Most then lived on a "Jewish Street," which was located near the monastery. The street was later renamed the Sterngasse. They generally worked as moneylenders, and provided other services to the local ruler. In 1456 the Jews were expelled from Most and were forbidden to live within a mile of the city limits. Some of those who were expelled settled in distant villages or on noble estates, while others left for Rudolice, near the town of Chomutov. During the 18th century residence restrictions were eased somewhat, and Jews were permitted to settle in the nearby towns of Lisnice, Horany, (German: Hareth), Korozluki, and Kopitz. Each of these towns became home to a small Jewish community, and beginning in 1821 a community register was kept of communities throughout the region. In 1839, although Jews were still subject to residence restrictions and forbidden from living in Most, Leopold Mandel was allowed to lease spirit distillery and given the right to purchase a home in Most. Nine years later, in 1848, Jews throughout the Austrian Empire were emancipated and economic and residence restrictions were subsequently removed. By 1861 there were 15 Jews living in Most, though they still held religious services in the synagogue of Horany. Gradually, however, the small communities surrounding Most were dissolved, and their Torah scrolls and ritual objects were transferred to Most (for instance, the synagogue in Horany was converted into a private home in 1870; during the 1930s it was used as a storage facility for grain). A synagogue was dedicated in Most in 1872. Towards the end of the 19th century Most became one of the most important communities in Bohemia. Most Jews living in the city spoke German, though some spoke Czech, and all understood both languages. Jewish children attended the general schools and were taught religious subjects by the cantors Jacob Lam and Joseph Miller; Rabbi Dr. Michael Halberstam taught religious subjects in the high school. Although most of the Jews living in the city were not religious, there were daily services held at the synagogue in the mornings and evenings; on holidays Jewish children did not go to school and Jewish shops were closed. The community supported the local German theater, the municipal museum, the fire brigade, and various health, charity, and sports organizations. The Jews who settled in Most during middle of the 19th century generally worked as grain and cattle merchants while others worked as craftsmen; the first Jewish physician settled in Most in 1864. After World War I Most entered a period of economic prosperity and many Jewish professionals came to live in Most, including physicians, dentists, lawyers, and engineers. Most of the Jews living in Most were middle or upper class, and were able to support needy Jews in other areas. Dr. Alexander Kisch served as the community's first rabbi, and held the position between 1874 and 1877. He was followed by Dr. Samuel Bloch (1877-1879), who would eventually publish the weekly "Ostereichische Wochenschrift, Dr. Jacob Tauber, who was decorated by Emperor Franz Joseph, Rabbi Dr. Gothard Deutsch who was appointed in 1881 as a history professor at Hebrew Union College in Cincinatti, Ohio, and Rabbi Dr. Adolf Biach, the co-writer of a textbook on history and Jewish literature that became a standard textbook in high schools throughout the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The community's leaders included the physician Dr. Moritz Glaser, the jurist Dr. Joseph Spitz, who led the community for approximately 30 years, Siegmund Woditschka, and Robert Heller. The community also employed a cantor, gabbais, and cemetery workers. During World War I (1914-1918) a large prisoner of war camp was established near Most. There were Jews among the Russian prisoners interned in the camp, and the community of Most worked to assist them. In 1917 a plague broke out in the camp; the Jewish prisoners who died were buried in the Jewish cemetery and a statue was erected in their memory. Additionally, in 1926 a plaque was placed in the synagogue in memory of the Jewish soldiers from Most who were killed in action during World War I. After the establishment of the Republic of Czechoslovakia in 1918 the German residents in the regions of Bohemia and Moravia rebelled against the new government and some Jews from Most fought on the German side. The rebellion was ultimately forcibly suppressed by the Czechs, and many of the Jews who took part in it were caught and imprisoned. They were released only when President Thomas Masaryk declared a general amnesty. Jews in Most and throughout Bohemia and Moravia became involved in public life after the emancipation of 1848. However, their political involvement intensified after World War I, when the Republic of Czechoslovakia recognized the Jews as a national minority with concurrent rights. In 1919 a delegate from the Jewish national party was elected to the local council. Additionally, Zionism became popular. Though Zionist activity took place in the community at the beginning of the 20th century, it increased substantially during the interwar period. Local branches of the youth organizations Blau-Weiss, Tekhelet Lavan, and Maccabi were established; the first Maccabi games in Czechoslovakia were played in Most in the winter of 1923. Some of those who joined Tekhelet Lavan left for Mandate Palestine in 1929 and were among the founders of Kibbutz Sarid. Before the elections to the 15th Zionist Congress in 1927, Jews from Most purchased membership and voting rights; later, during the 1937 elections to the 20th Zionist Congress in Zurich a representative from Most was elected as a delegate, and 110 community members took part in the elections. Otto Kahn, a resident of Most, was later elected to the council of regional representatives. In 1935 training groups under the auspices of HeHalutz and WIZO were active, and sought to prepare young Jews to emigrate to Palestine. Additionally, Dr. Oskar Neuman, one of the leading Zionists of Slovakia, was born in Most. The census of 1921 found 1,250 Jews living in the community of Most; 737 lived in the city itself, while the rest lived in nearby settlements. During the 1930s the Jewish community of Most, which included Jews from nearby villages, consisted of 315 families (approximately 1,000 people. A two-story community house was built in 1930 in the synagogue's courtyard. It included a large prayer house for the winter months, a meeting hall, a library, and apartments for some of the community's employees. Following the sweeping victory of the Sudeten German party in the general elections of 1936-1937, many Czechs voted for the Jewish party; the Jewish party received approximately 600 votes, even though only 400 Jews were eligible to vote. Dr. A. Taussig, the representative of the Jewish party representative, was elected to the council of Most and Leon Glaser was elected as a deputy member. In 1930, 662 Jews were living in Most, out of a total population of 33,000. THE HOLOCAUST On the night of September 24, 1938, about a week before the Munich Agreement would be signed, which would dissolve the Republic of Czechoslovakia and annex the Sudeten Region to Germany, panic broke out among the Jews of Most. About 80% of them left the town that night, while the rest left immediately before the annexation. Nearly all of them left for other areas in Bohemia and Moravia. The synagogue was set on fire by local Nazis on Kristallnacht (November 10,1938) and destroyed completely. Some Jews from Most succeeded in fleeing the country before World War II broke out in September, 1939. Some left for Palestine, others for England, the United States, Canada, as well as other countries. Some of those who left Most fought against the Nazis in the armies of their adopted countries, as well as in the Czech military. Those who fled to other areas in Bohemia and Moravia, however, were less lucky. Bohemia and Moravia were occupied by the Nazis on March 15, 1939 and became a protectorate of Nazi Germany; this ushered in a period of discrimination and violence against the area's Jews. Beginning in 1941 Jews throughout the Czech lands were sent to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were deported to concentration and death camps, where most perished. Approximately 80% of the Jews from Most were killed during the war. POSTWAR After the war some surviving Jews from Most, as well as other Jewish families from Carpatho-Russia, returned to the city and reestablished a Jewish community, led by Emil Krulig. In 1948 there were 162 Jews living in Most. However, over time many of Most's Jews left for other countries, and the community became affiliated with Usti nad Labem. Between 1985 and 1989 Most was completely demolished and rebuilt on the slope of the mountain, following a government decision to take advantage of the coal deposits under the old town. The Jewish cemetery, which was located on the slope of one of the hills, remained untouched and was looked after by a local resident. The last Jewish burial took place in the Most cemetery in 1977; afterwards any Jewish burials took place in the regional cemetery of Usti nad Labem. In 1990 two Jewish couples and an old Jewish woman were living in Most.

Nachod A town in the Hradec Kralove Region, Czech Republic Nachod is located in the valley of the Metuje River, on the Polish border. Until 1918 it was part of the Austrian Empire. During the interwar period, and between the end of World War II and 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. One of the Torah scrolls that was sent from Nachod to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague during World War II is on permanent loan to the Arden Heights Boulevard Jewish Center: Congregation Etz Chaim in Staten Island, New York. HISTORY The Jewish community of Nachod was one of the four oldest in Bohemia, and among the most important. The first written evidence of a Jewish community dates to the city records of 1455 and the Jewish Street dates to the end of the 15th century. The Jews were expelled from Nachod in 1542; to add insult to injury, many were robbed as they made their way to Poland. They returned, however, in 1544. A Jewish school is mentioned in documents from 1547; the cemetery was consecrated shortly thereafter, in 1550, and a mikveh was built in 1592. By 1570 there were 11 families recorded as living in the town. In 1663, the Jews were accused of having caused a fire that destroyed the Jewish Quarter, along with a large part of the town. One member of the community was executed while the rest were attacked. Many fled Nachod and founded a community in Ceska Skalice; this community was eventually expelled in 1705. The Jewish community of Nachod was once again reestablished shortly after this second expulsion, and by 1724 it had 60 Jewish families. The synagogue was rebuilt in 1777. Jews became active in making Nachod a center of the textile industry, the culmination of which was in 1848 when Isaac Mautner founded the famous Mautner Textile Company. Jews throughout the Austrian Empire were emancipated in 1848 and granted full civil rights and residence restrictions were subsequently removed. Emancipation, however, could not guarantee the Jews' safety. In 1899 the Jews of Nachod, along with their coreligionists throughout the region, were the victims of anti-Semitic riots spurred by the Hilsner blood libel case. There were 150 Jewish families living in Nachod in 1852. Shortly thereafter, however, the population began to decline as Jews were, for the first time, able to live in larger towns and cities where they had more economic and educational opportunities. By 1893 approximately 630 Jews lived in Nachod; the 1921 census indicated that the Jewish population had dropped by then to 463, and by 1930 there were 293 Jews living in Nachod (2.1% of the total population). In 1902 there were 100 Jews living in 22 villages and small towns that were affiliated with Nachod's Jewish community. Among them were formerly prominent communities such as Hronov, Cerveny Kostelec (German: Rothkosteletz), and Police nad Metuji. During the interwar period the newly-formed Republic of Czechoslovakia recognized the Jews as a national minority with concurrent rights. This prompted a strong interest in Zionism. In 1934 the Moller brothers transferred their textile factory to Palestine and founded the Ata Company in Kiryat Ata. Among the rabbis of Nachod were Heinrich (Chaim) Brody, who served from 1898 to 1905, and Gustav Sicher. THE HOLOCAUST Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany in March, 1939, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the area's Jews. In June 1939 Nachod's synagogue was desecrated; that July the Gestapo raided Jewish homes. The cemetery was also mostly destroyed. Beginning in 1941 Czech Jews were sent to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were deported to concentration and death camps, where most were killed. Before the community's deportation, its ritual objects were sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR After the war a small congregation was established; this congregation was affiliated with the Jewish community of Liberec, and was founded mostly by veteran soldiers from Subcarpatian Ruthenia. Nachod also became an important transit station for the Berichah movement, which organized groups of Holocaust survivors to illegally emigrate to Mandate Palestine. In 1958 a monument was erected in memory of the victims of the Holocaust. The remaining tombstones in the cemetery that had not been destroyed during the war were destroyed during the 1950s. The synagogue building was demolished during the 1960s.

Novy Bydzov German: Neubidschow A town in the Hradec Kralove Region, Czech Republic The synagogue and cemetery are the only remaining parts of the Jewish Quarter. The synagogue is used as a church. The cemetery has over 1,000 tombstones, most dating to the 17th and 18th centuries with the oldest tombstone dating to 1577. The cemetery, along with the smaller new cemetery (which was consecrated at the end of the 19th century), is owned by the Jewish community of Prague. HISTORY Jews are first mentioned in town records dating from 1514. The community purchased land for a cemetery in 1520 and a synagogue is first mentioned in 1559 (it would later be renovated in 1660 and 1838). In 1570, ten Jewish families were recorded as living in the town. Between 1656 and 1670 most of Novy Bydzov's Jews worked as salt merchants. The community was temporary expelled after an outbreak of plague; some of its members founded communities in the surrounding villages. There were 90 Jewish families living in Novy Bydzov in 1724. Three years later they were segregated in a special Jewish Quarter (the Jewish Quarter would eventually be destroyed in a fire at the turn of the 20th century). In 1744 the community grew after absorbing Jews who were expelled from Prague; by 1786 the Jewish community owned 37 houses in the town. A new cemetery was consecrated in 1885. By 1893 there were 838 members of the Jewish community, some of whom lived in the 35 surrounding villages. In 1930 the Jewish community of Novy Bydzov numbered 148 (2.1% of the town's total population). THE HOLOCAUST Beginning in 1942 the 98 Jews who remained in the town were deported to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto; when the community was deported, the synagogue equipment and documents were transferred to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. From Terezin they were sent to concentration and death camps. One person survived.

Novy Jicin German: Neutitschein A town in the Moravian-Silesian Region, Czech Republic Novy Jicin is located on the spurs of the Carpathian Mountains. Until 1918 it was part of the Austrian Empire. During the interwar period, and between the end of World War II until 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. Between 1938 and 1945 it was one of the municipalities of the Sudeten Region. The Jewish cemetery contains memorials to Holocaust victims, in addition to a pre-burial house. It is owned by the Jewish community of Ostrava and can be accessed freely. HISTORY Jews are recorded in Novy Jicin during the middle of the 14th century as homeowners and cloth merchants. The Jewish Street (Judengasse), which included 46 houses in 1581, was located next to the castle; Jews were, however, permitted to live on other streets as well. When the community was expelled in 1562 its leaders sold the synagogue to the mayor and handed the cemetery over to the city, with the request that it not be damaged. They then left to settle in the surrounding villages. Jews returned to the vicinity of Novy Jicin in the late 18th and early 19th centuries and by 1828 a few privileged families were permitted to live in the town itself. It was only after the 1848 emancipation of Jews throughout the Austrian Empire, and the subsequent removal of economic and residence restrictions, that Jews were allowed to return to live in Novy Jicin (the townspeople violently objected to their new Jewish neighbors, and in 1850 local authorities were called to suppress attempts to organize anti-Jewish riots). The community was granted the status of a kultusverein (an independent political entity) in 1868, and in 1892 the community was officially recognized. A cemetery was consecrated in 1875, and a synagogue was established in 1908. Most of the town's Jews worked as traders or in the local textile industry. In 1921 the first hakhsharah farm in Moravia, which trained young Jews for eventual emigration to Mandate Palestine, was established in Novy Jicin. Jews owned a large sawmill and developed a local hatmaking industry. In 1847 the Jewish community numbered 14 people. By 1868 that number had jumped to 155 and in 1880 there were 275 Jews living in Novy Jicin. At the turn of the 20th century the Jewish community numbered 253, and in 1930 the community numbered 206 (1.4% of the total population). After the Sudeten Crisis of 1938, which resulted in the dissolution of the Republic of Czechoslovakia and the annexation of the Sudeten Region, including Novy Jicin, to Nazi Germany, the Jews of Novy Jicin fled and the community was dissolved.

Olomouc Yiddish: Olmitze, Olmuntz German: Olmutz A Moravian city, Czech Republic Olomouc is located on the Morava River. It is an administrative center of the Olomouc Region, and the sixth-largest city in the Czech Republic. Until 1918 Olomouc was part of the Austrian Empire. During the interwar period, and between the end of World War II and 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The Jewish community of Olomouc is an active congregation that offers a number of religious, cultural, and historic activities for locals and visitors alike. It is also responsible for the care of religious and cultural activities and monuments in the communities of Bruntal, Jesenik, Prerov, and Sumperk. The Jewish community of Olomouc holds regular Shabbat services, holiday celebrations, and festive meals. Services are conducted either by the cantor, the community chairman, or the visiting rabbi. The community builds a sukkah for the holiday of Sukkot, and has a kosher kitchen that is used to prepare communal meals. Funerals take place in Neredin, a village within Olomouc. A monthly periodical "Chajejn" ("Our Life"), informs community members about past community events, communal history, as well as current and upcoming communal events. The newspaper also tracks the lives of local Holocaust survivors. Communal institutions include a Ladies' Club and a Gentlemen's Club. Social services support the city's poor and elderly Jews, and are financed by the Claims Conference and the Foundation for the Victims of the Holocaust. Community members benefit from community-organized trips, lectures, and cultural events. The community also offers kosher catering and apartment accommodations for visitors. Olomouc's surviving Jewish cemetery is part of a larger municipal cemetery. Though it is smaller than when it was established in 1900, it still contains a funeral hall and approximately 1,000 graves. The cemetery also contains a memorial to the Jewish victims of World War I, as well as a Holocaust memorial, which was unveiled on May 5, 2005. The funeral hall and the Holocaust memorial are designated as protected monuments. Olomouc is also home to the Stolpersteine. Developed by the German artist Gunter Demnig, the Stolpersteine are 10 x 10 x 10cm concrete cubes inscribed with the name, date of birth, and date and place of death of an individual who was killed in the Holocaust. These stones are placed in front of the house where the individual lived before their deportation and murder. The Stolpersteine commemorating the Jewish victims of the Holocaust in Olomouc began to be placed throughout the city in 2011. As of 2012 the Jewish community of Olomouc had 154 members. HISTORY Jews are first mentioned in 906 CE, in an agreement regulating the taxes paid by Jews. At that time Jews lived among the area's Christians (and not segregated in a Jewish ghetto). A prayer house was located at the foot of Mount Julius. In 1060, however, the Jews were segregated in one part of the town. They were forced to pay special taxes, as well as to wear a yellow patch that would identify them as Jewish. The Crusades, which swept through the town periodically from the end of the 11th century through the 12th and 13th centuries, rendered life dangerous for the city's Jews. Most of the Jews living in Olomouc during this period worked as traders and artisans. The Jews' quality of life improved in 1254 under King Ottokar II, who renewed the privileges granted to the Jews by his father, Wenzel I. King Wenzel II and King Karl IV also honored the Jewish charter. The relationships between Olomouc's Jews and their leaders were good; in 1311, when King Johann visited Olomouc, he was received by a procession of Jews carrying Torah scrolls and singing. These warm relationships would not last, however. In 1454 King Ladislaus the Posthumus expelled the Jews from Olomouc, an expulsion that would later be confirmed in 1745 by Queen Maria Theresa. Nonetheless, a small number of Jews under the protection of the authorities were allowed to stay in the town from Monday through Friday. Jews were allowed to resettle the town only after the emancipation of Jews throughout the Austrian Empire in 1848 and the subsequent removal of residence restrictions. Even then, however, the local Jewish population grew slowly because of local opposition to Jewish settlement. Leopold Hamburger of Prossnitz, who leased a brewery and had come to live in Olomouc, was expelled, even though he was legally allowed to settle there. Another Jew was driven away by locals throwing stones. Nonetheless, a Jewish community began to grow. A prayer house was dedicated in 1863. A Jewish Cultural Union was founded in 1865. The Jewish cemetery was consecrated in 1867. The government recognized the Jewish community as an independent religious and cultural community in 1892, a time when Olomouc's community began to flourish. A magnificent synagogue was inaugurated in 1897, and a new cemetery was consecrated in 1903. Dr. Berthold Oppenheimer was elected as the community's first rabbi, and Edward Hamburger became the leader of the community; he would be succeeded by Jakob Even, who led the community until 1913. Communal institutions included a chevra kaddisha, a women's society, a Free Table Organization, which supported Jewish students, a literary society, a branch of Bnei Brith, and a mutual aid society named after Adolf Kraus. In 1903 there were 2,198 Jews living in Olomouc (3.4% of the total population). The community grew even larger after World War I, when it absorbed refugees who had fled from Poland. The Jewish community of Olomouc eventually became the third-largest Jewish community in Moravia. Most of the community's members were industrialists. Factories and manufacturing plants owned by local Jews included a malt factory, an acetone-producing plant (owned by the Briess family, which used a patent that belonged to Israel's first president Chaim Weizmann), and the Heilkur vegetable oil production plant. Sigmund Zweig, the community's vice president, was also the vice president of the tradesmen and artisans union. Some members of the community were also engaged in academic or professional work. By 1897 Zionism had become a major influence in the city. The Austrian Zionist Congress took place in Olomouc; that same year a branch of the Zion movement was opened in the city, led by Wilhelm Spitzer. Jewish students affiliated with the Zionist student movement Geulah worked to promote the Zionist cause during their vacations. A branch of Blau Weiss was opened in 19193, followed by the youth movement Maccabi. The sports club, which had been active since 1901, became the Maccabi Club in 1927. Additionally, the Zionist sports organization HaKoach opened a chapter in Olomouc in 1913 and organized a professional soccer team in the city. The Republic of Czechoslovakia, which was established after World War I in the wake of the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, granted the Jews cultural and national autonomy. Jews throughout the country became more politically active, and Zionist activity increased. In 1919, two representatives from the Jewish National Party were elected to the local council of Olomouc. Dr. Ludwig Meissner, who hailed from Olomouc, was elected to the Central Committee of Zionist Organizations. For some time Olomouc acted as the regional center of Zionist activities. The sixth regional Zionist conference took place in Olomouc in 1924, and the city's Jews purchased membership and voting rights before the elections to the 15th Zionist Congress; 191 Jews from Olomouc would later participate in elections to the 20th Zionist Congress in 1937. The socialist Zionist party Poalei Zion was reestablished in the Republic of Czechoslovakia in 1928, initiated by several Jews from Olomouc led by Oskar Huber. Dr. Oskar Zweigental was elected to the central committee of the Jewish Partyafter its establishment in 1931. In 1930 there were 2,198 Jews living in Olomouc. Among the notable figures from Olomouc were the composer Leo Fall and the music conductor Fritz Zweig. THE HOLOCAUST A number of Jews from the Sudeten Region settled in Olomouc after the annexation of Sudetenland to Nazi Germany in 1938. On March 15, 1939, Bohemia and Moravia were occupied by Nazi troops, and Germany declared the region to be a protectorate of the Third Reich. This ushered in a period of discrimination and violence against the region's Jews. Shortly thereafter, when the city was occupied, three S.A men accompanied by local Germans went to every Jewish home in the city early in the morning and arrested all of the Jewish men. These men were imprisoned for several days before being taken to the concentration camp Dachau in Germany. On the night between March 15 and 16, 1939, the synagogue was set on fire. Local firemen were ordered to prevent the fire from spreading to the adjacent buildings but not to prevent the synagogue from burning down. Jewish students were subsequently expelled from school; their parents responded by setting up classes in their homes. At the beginning of October 1941 there were 4,015 Jews living in Olomouc. During the second week of May 1942, the city's Jews were ordered to register for transfer. On June 26, 1942, approximately 900 Jews were sent from Olomouc to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. Further transports took place on June 30, July 7, and July 8, 1942. The last Jews remaining in the city (those who were classified as "essential," as well as those who were married to Christians) were sent to Terezin on March 7, 1945. From there they were deported to concentration and death camps, where most perished. In total, 3,494 Jews were deported from Olomouc and the surrounding areas. Before the deportation from Olomouc 1,913 documents, 343 books, and 140 ceremonial objects from the community were transferred to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR Approximately 280 members of the Jewish community of Olomouc and the surrounding areas survived, 200 of whom returned to the city after the war. A prayer house was established, as well as a chevra kaddisha and a mutual aid society. The community celebrated holidays, and organized concerts featuring Jewish music. Rabbi Dr. Richard Feder, who lived in Brno, provided the communities in the district, including Olomouc, with rabbinic services. In 1948 there were 354 Jews living in Olomouc, 246 of whom registered as part of the Jewish community. In 1949 a Holocaust memorial was unveiled in the Jewish section of the general cemetery. There were also memorial plaques affixed to the cemetery's ceremonial hall. A small synagogue was consecrated in Olomouc in 1955. The community had 450 members in 1959, including Jews from the towns of Sumperk, Usov, Kojetin, Prerov, Lipnik, Hranice, Jevicko and Prostejov. After emigration depleted the community's population, these towns joined the Jewish community of Moravska-Ostrava, with the exception of Prostejov which joined the Jewish community of Brno. The location where the synagogue once stood was turned into a small park; during the postwar communist area the park held statues of Lenin and Stalin. The site was subsequently turned into a parking lot. On March 7, 1990, a memorial plaque was affixed to Palach Square, to mark the site where the synagogue once stood. The plaque's inscription reads: "On this site stood the synagogue which was burned to the ground by local Nazis on the first day of the occupation, March 15, 1939. Of this religious community, 2,292 members fell victim to Nazi genocide. In 1991 the Jewish community of Olomouc was led by Emy Donatova and had 55 members, including six children and four teenagers. A similar number of Jews who did not wish to officially identify themselves as Jewish also lived in Olomouc. The Jewish community employed a cantor, celebrated Jewish holidays together, organized lectures, and was active in the Czechoslovak-Israel Friendship League.

Ostrava Moravska German: Ostrau A city in the northeast Czech Republic. The capital of the Moravian-Silesian Region Ostrava is located near the Polish border, where the Odra, Opava, Ostravice, and Lucina Rivers meet. It is the third-largest city in the Czech Republic. Until 1918 Ostrava was part of the Austrian Empire. During the interwar period, and from the end of World War II until 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. One of the Torah scrolls sent from Ostrava to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague during World War II is currently located in the Kingston Synagogue in the United Kingdom. HISTORY A few protected Jews (those who were shielded by the local nobles in exchange for taxes and other services) were living in Ostrava by 1508, but the general Jewish population was not permitted to settle in the city until after the emancipation of Jews throughout the Austrian Empire in 1848, and the subsequent removal of residence restrictions. Until then there were a small number of Jews living in the town, both legally and illegally. In 1792, after Emperor Joseph II issued the Tolerance Edict in 1782, a Jewish man named Mordehai Schoenhoff settled in the town and rented a wine store. Later a few Jews arrived from Hotzenplotz, Leipnik, and Ungarisch-Brod. During the first half of the 19th century Jews from Silesia, Moravia, Slovakia, and Galicia began to settle in Ostrava. Those who came to Ostrava from the east tended to be more religious, and the community that they established was more traditional; it was these Galician arrivals who established a mikvah (ritual bath) and an Orthodox synagogue. Once Jews were allowed to freely settle in the city, communal life began to flourish. A synagogue was built in the Polish part of the town in 1857. A Tarbut society was established in 1860 and led by Shimeon Fraenkel. That year also saw an influx of Jews after Ostrava was ordered by the emperor to remove any remaining residence and economic restrictions on the Jews. A Jewish cemetery was consecrated in 1872, following a cholera epidemic. From 1860 until 1875 the Jewish community was made up of Jews from Moravska Ostrava and the neighboring Polska Ostrava (German: Plnisch-Ostrau). Beginning in 1875, however, the Jewish community of Moravska Ostrava became independent. A community committee was subsequently established, led by Berthold Schwartz, and replaced Tarbut. Marcus Strassman was appointed as the community's leader, with Dr. Joseph Wachsberg acting as his deputy. A new synagogue was consecrated in September 1879, with thousands of people in attendance. In 1881 the community numbered 700 members. During this period at the end of the 19th century, Ostrava became known as the "Moravian Manchester," due to its increasing importance as an industrial center. The Rothschild and Gutmann families, in particular, owned important coal mines and ironworks in the area. This brought Jews to the city from all over Moravia and Galicia; by 1890 the Jewish population had reached 1,356 and in 1900 the Jewish population was 3,272. A number of synagogues were built in Ostrava's suburbs in order to accommodate the influx of Jews; an Orthodox synagogue would later be added to the rest in 1926 and the city would ultimately be home to six synagogues. Rabbi Dr. Bernhard Zimmels, the community's first rabbi, was appointed in 1890. Rabbi Zimmels passed away in 1893 and was succeeded by Dr. Yaakov Schapira in 1903. Marcus Strassman, the first leader of the community, was succeeded by Dr. Alois Hilf after his death. Communal institutions included an old age home, a Bikkur Holim, a women's society, a home for children, and a Bnei Brith lodge. A Hebrew school was established in 1863; it was officially recognized by the authorities as an elementary school in 1884, the same year that the language of instruction was changed to German (the school's language of instruction would eventually be changed to Czech, after the establishment of the Republic of Czechoslovakia); Hebrew was taught for 2 hours each day. By the end of the 19th century the school enrolled 303 students, and had 7 classes. There was also a vocational boarding school affiliated with the metal industries of the Austrian branch of the Rothschild family, which attracted students from all over the Republic of Czechoslovakia. A summer camp for Jewish children was established in 1912. In 1918 Dr. Reuben Faerber established a publication and sales company; most of the published books dealt with Jewish and Zionist subjects. During the interwar period Julius Kittels Nachfolger published a German translation of the Talmud. The Republic of Czechoslovakia recognized the Jews as a national minority with concurrent rights, prompting Jews throughout the country to become active Zionists, as well as to take an active role in local politics. The Jews of Ostrava obtained 60 seats in the town council in 1921, including representatives from the Jewish Democrats, the Zionist Party, Jewish Laborers, and Jewish Czechs. In 1931 the first Jewish Party conference was held in Ostrava, and in 1935 Ernst Fisher was elected as the party's representative in the Senate. Dr. Alois Hilf was the president of the Federation of the Jewish Communities of Moravia in the National Jewish Council. Dr. Zigmund Witt was a member of the Senate while Dr. Victor Haas was a member of the Parliament. Many members of the community were active Zionists; in fact, beginning in 1921 the executive committee of the Zionist organizations of Silesia and Moravia was located in Ostrava. Many Jews in the city contributed generously to Keren HaYessod. Jewish students worked to spread Zionist ideology, particularly among the youth. Zionist organizations held their conventions in the city and a branch of the Palestine Office was opened. Zionist groups that were active included Poalei Zion, Achdut HaAvodah, Mizrachi, Revisionist Zionists, HeHalutz, HaShomer HaTzair, HeHalutz HaKlal Zioni, Blau Weiss, Maccabi, as well as a number of others. Kedmah, a group to prepare young Jews to emigrate to Mandate Palestine, was established in 1924. Community members bought membership and voting rights before the 15th Zionist Congress, as well as in subsequent years; 518 Jews from Ostrava participated in the elections to the 20th Zionist Congress. In 1931 there were 6,865 Jews (5.4% of the total population) living in Ostrava. Among the notable figures from Ostrava were the playwright and poet Marcel Meir Faerber, who later became a journalist and wrote for the Tribuna in Bratislava and Yediot Khadashot in Israel. Joseph Wechsberg, a writer and literary critic, as well as the editor of the Jewish weekly Selbswehr (published in Prague), was born in Ostrava in 1907. THE HOLOCAUST Following the Munich Agreement of September, 1938, which dissolved the Republic of Czechoslovakia and annexed the Sudeten Region to Nazi Germany, Ostrava absorbed waves of Jews fleeing from the region. In March, 1939 however, the region of Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the area's Jews. Ostrava was the first city to be occupied by the Nazis, who burned the city's six synagogues. The city's Jews began to be deported soon after; the first transports took Ostrava's Jews to Poland, while later transports sent them to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From these locations they were sent to concentration and death camps, where most perished. Before the deportations began, 348 ritual objects, 680 books, and 246 documents from Ostrava's Jewish community were sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR Approximately 250 survivors returned to Ostrava after the war and reestablished a Jewish community. Eventually the communities of Bohumin, Karvina, Krnov, Opava, Prlava, and Olomouc became affiliated with Ostrava's Jewish communit; the entire community consisted of 500 Jews. Ostrava had a cantor, while the regional rabbi, Rabbi Dr. Richard Feder, lived in Brno. 649 Jews lived in Ostrava, 548 of whom were officially registered in the community. A new cemetery was established in 1965. The old Jewish cemetery was destroyed during the 1980s and the remaining tombstones were transferred to the cemetery in Silesian Ostrava. In 1997 the Jewish community of Ostrava had 80 members.

Pardubice German: Pardubitz A city in the Czech Republic Pardubice is the capital of the Pardubice Region. It is located on the Elbe River, 59 miles (95km) east of Prague. Until 1918 Pardubice was part of the Austrian Empire. During the interwar period, and after World War II until 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The Jewish cemetery contains tombstones dating from the 17th century through the 20th century. The cemetery also includes a Holocaust memorial, marked mass graves, and a memorial for the bones that were transferred from the old cemetery in 1883. The Jewish community of Prague owns the cemetery, and funds its continual care. The cemetery can be visited with permission. One of the Torah scrolls sent from Pardubice to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague during World War II is on permanent loan to Congregation Beth Shalom in Pompton Lakes, New Jersey. HISTORY A document dating from 1492 mentions a Jew from Pardubice. However, until the end of the 16th century only a small number of Jewish families were allowed to live in Pardubice, under the protection of the noble house of Pernstein. After the Catholic Church expelled the Hussites from the town, the Jews were able to purchase the houses of the expelled Hussites. A Jewish community was founded at Pardubice during the 17th century. The first Jews who settled in Pardubice were merchants with trade connections in Germany, Holland, and Poland. In 1617, under pressure by the Christian merchants, special taxes were levied on them, which would last until 1645 when the rights of Jewish merchants were expanded and their tax burden was eased. Daniel Moises of Friedland leased the collection of royal customs in the town and also dominated the trade in grain, salt, and other foods. After the expulsion of the Jews, in spite of the objection of local traders, he was allowed to remain living n Pardubice. At the end of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) a number of Jews began arriving in Pardubice, expanding the community but also leading to tension with the local Christian residents. Ultimately, in 1662 the Jews who had arrived after 1618 were expelled. These expelled families settled in the surrounding area and established a number of smaller communities; by the end of the 17th century, until 1724, these expelled Jews living in the area were forbidden from burying their dead in the Jewish cemetery at Pardubice. In 1745 the entire Jewish community of Pardubice was expelled. Two years later only one Jew, Daniel Veselsky, was permitted to settle in the town and to work as a distiller. In 1801 there were 56 Jewish families belonged to the community of Pardubice, two of whom lived in the city itself while the rest lived in 38 villages in the area. In 1848, however, Jews throughout the Austrian Empire were emancipated, and residence restrictions were subsequently repealed. Jews began moving to Pardubice itself shortly thereafter; in 1851 five Jewish families lived in Pardubice and by 1880 the city's Jewish population was 378. A synagogue was built that year and expanded in 1904. The old Jewish cemetery, which was originally dedicated in 1624, underwent a number of expansions before being closed down in 1882; its tombstones were moved to the new cemetery, which was dedicated in 1883. Victor Vohryzek, one of the founders of the Czech-Jewish movement, is buried among those buried in the new cemetery. Jewish children attended a private school in which the language of instruction was German. A Jewish women's society was also active. The community's president during the 1830s was Moses Kraus; he was succeeded in 1855 by Marcus Oesterreicher. When Oesterreicher died in 1897 Dr. J. Berthold became the community's president; he was succeeded in 1929 by Karl Winternitz. During the 1920s Rabbi Adolf Nahnadel served the community. After World War I, with the establishment of the Republic of Czechoslovakia, the Jews were recognized as a national minority with concurrent rights. This prompted many to become active in the Zionist movement, and for some time Pardubice became a regional center for Zionist activity. In 1926, before the elections to the 15th Zionist Congress, the Jews of Pardubice purchased membership and voting rights. During the 1937 elections to the 20th Zionist Congress, 24 Jews from Pardubice participated. In 1921 554 Jews were living in Pardubice. In 1930 518 Jews were living in Pardubice. Among the notable figures from Pardubice were the painter, actor, and playwright Emil Arthur Pittermann-Longen, as well as the singer and national theater producer Hanus Thein (1904- 1974). THE HOLOCAUST In March, 1939 the region of Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the region's Jews. In the beginning of October 1941 records show that there were 1,554 Jews in the Jewish community of Pardubice. Between May 18 and 24, 1942, the Jews of Pardubice were ordered to register with the authorities in preparation for their deportation. In December of that year, the Jews of Pardubice were deported on two separate transports to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were sent to concentration and death camps, where most perished. Before their deportation to Terezin, 30 documents, 11 books and 215 ritual objects belonging to the community were transferred to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. On December 31,1944, there were 194 Jews left in Pardubice, most of whom were married to non-Jews. A few months later, on April 30, 1945, when the fighting in the region ceased, there were 178 Jews in Pardubice, 28 of whom were concentration camp survivors. POSTWAR In 1945 the synagogue was converted into a cultural center; it would eventually be demolished in 1958. In 1946 the board of the Jewish Communities of Bohemia established a home in Pardubice for 65 elderly Jews. In 1948 the community erected a statue in the Jewish cemetery which listed the names of all of the Jews from Pardubice and the surrounding area who were killed in the Holocaust. The community house, which included a prayer hall that was originally founded in 1867, was destroyed in 1958, along with the city's synagogue.

Plzen German, English: Pilsen A city in western Bohemia, Czech Republic Pilsen is located approximately 56 miles (90km) west of Prague. Until 1918 it was part of the Austrian Empire. During the interwar period, and between the end of World War II until 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. Two of Pilsen's five synagogues remain standing. The Moorish-style Great Synagogue, which was built in 1893, was renovated at the end of the 20th century. In addition to being used for religious services, it is also used as a concert and exhibition hall. Both the Great Synagogue and the Old Synagogue offer tours from April until October, Sunday through Friday (except for Jewish holidays). The Jewish cemetery has tombstones dating from the end of the 19th century through the 20th century. It includes a memorial to victims of the Holocaust, as well as special sections for children, refugees, and soldiers who served in World War I. The cemetery can be accessed freely. HISTORY The Jewish community of Pilsen was one of the first to be established in Bohemia. The first documentary record of the community is a decree from 1338, signed by Charles IV, in which the town's administrators were ordered to protect the Jews. The community had a synagogue, and in 1432 the community bought a plot of land to be used as a cemetery. Many transactions between Jews and Christians are recorded on the town records from the 15th century, indicating that there was a great deal of commercial interaction between them. These peaceful times, however, would not last. In 1504 Jews were expelled from Pilsen after a host desecration charge. It was not until 1848, with the emancipation of Jews throughout the Austrian Empire and the subsequent removal of residence restrictions, that Jews were once again permitted to settle in Pilsen. In the meantime, Jews were allowed to trade in Pilsen and Jews from all of western Bohemia and Prague attended the Pilsen markets. In 1821 there were 32 Jews living in Pilsen illegally. By 1854, once Jews were permitted to live in the city, the Jewish population jumped to 249. A Jewish cemetery was consecrated in 1856 and a synagogue in 1859. In spite of anti-Jewish riots that broke out in 1866, by 1870 the Jewish population had grown to 1,207. By the beginning of the 20th century the community was among the five largest and most affluent in Bohemia. A large, Moorish-style synagogue was built in 1893. The first Bnai Brith lodge in Bohemia was founded in Pilsen. Beginning in 1918 the community supported two rabbis, one of whom delivered his sermons in Czech while the other gave his sermons in German. Ideologically the community was diverse, and conflicts would break out between German liberal assimilationists, Czech-Jews, and Zionists. Controversy broke out during the interwar period of shechitah, kosher slaughtering. In 1920 it was declared illegal for humanitarian reasons. When the Supreme Court declared this prohibition illegal in 1934, the attempt to reintroduce shechitah failed because of the higher prices for kosher meat. In 1921 there were 3,117 Jews living in Pilsen. In 1930 the community numbered 2,773 (2.4% of the total population). In the fall of 1938 many Jews began arriving in Pilsen from communities in the Sudeten region, which was annexed to Nazi Germany following the Munich Agreement. THE HOLOCAUST In March, 1939 the German army occupied Bohemia and Moravia, and declared the region as a protectorate of Nazi Germany. This ushered in a period of violence and discrimination against the region's Jews. The Jewish cemetery in Pilsen was desecrated; the synagogue would have been destroyed, but the plan was abandoned when it became clear that destroying the synagogue would also mean destroying the surrounding buildings. In 1940 the community's rabbi, Max Hoch, was killed, along with one of the community's leaders. In 1942 more than 2,000 people from western Bohemia were concentrated in Pilsen. From there they were deported to concentration and death camps, where most were killed. Meanwhile, ritual objects from the synagogue were transferred to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR After World War II a community was reestablished in Pilsen; in 1948 it consisted of 293 people. A memorial for the 3,200 victims of the Polocaust from Pilsen and western Bohemia was dedicated in the new cemetery in 1951. Though the Jewish community declined, mainly due to emigration, it was still active in 1970 and used the old synagogue and maintained both cemeteries. It also administered the Ceske Budejovice community. In 1973 the Great Synagogue, which had fallen into disrepair, was closed for safety reasons. It was reopened and restored in 1998.

Podivin German: Kostel A town in the Czech Republic Podivin is located 27 miles (approximately 43km) southeast of Brno. Until 1918 it was part of the Austrian Empire. During the interwar period, and between the end of World War II and 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. One of the Torah scrolls sent from Podivin to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague during World War II has been on permanent loan to Makom Shalom, in Chicago, Illinois, since 1996. The Jewish cemetery contains hundreds of gravestones, the oldest of which dates to 1694. There is also a ceremonial hall with a small exhibition. The cemetery is owned by the Jewish community of Brno, and can be freely accessed. HISTORY It is thought that a Jewish community existed at Podivin during the 17th century and, like many other communities in Moravia, was dispersed during the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). After the war Jews returned to Podivin; in 1673 there were 18 houses that were owned by Jews. At the end of the 17th century additional Jews arrived from Poland, seeking refuge in Podivin after the Khmelnytsky massacres. There were two Jewish Quarters in Podivin. One, which was located southwest of the town square, contained 20 Jewish houses. The other, located north of the town square, held 40 houses. The Jewish Quarters were administered as an independent municipal entity and had their own Jewish mayor. The synagogue was built in the southern Quarter sometime during the 17th century, and was renovated in 1820. A cemetery, which replaced an older cemetery that had fallen into disuse, was dedicated during the second half of the 17th century; it would be expanded in 1872. During the 17th and 18th century most of the Jews worked as traders in salt, tobacco, wine, wool, goose liver, and fat. The rabbis that served the community during the 17th century included Rabbi Monish b. Isaiah Teomim (d. 1684), who was also the head of the local yeshiva, and Rabbi Benjamin Wolff. Rabbi Eliezer Trillinger was the community’s rabbi at the beginning of the 18th century. Rabbi Mordecai, Rabbi Abraham Baack, and Rabbi Moses Blatt served the community during the 19th century; Rabbi Shimshon Abraham Kulke was the rabbi between 1838 and 1894 and was succeeded by Rabbi Dr. Shimon Mandl, the author of theological and philosophical works who served from 1894 until1899. Rabbi Dr. Mandl was succeeded by Rabbi Abraham Weiss, who served between 1899 and 1903. The scientist and publisher Rabbi Duschinsky served between 1904 and 1907 (among his works, he recorded the history of the rabbis of the Great Synagogue of London between the years 1756 and 1842) and was succeeded by Rabbi Dr. Jacob Hoffmann, who served between1908 and 1912; Rabbi Dr. Hoffman, in turn, was succeeded by Rabbi Dr. Adolf Deutsch, who led the community between 1914 and 1920. Rabbi Judah Neumann was the community's rabbi beginning in 1921. After 1929 the community did not have its own rabbi and instead was served by the rabbi of Breclav, located 5 miles (8km) from Podivin. Community leaders included B. Straussler, Isidor Rosenzweig, and Arthur Neumann are known as the head of the community. During the 1860s the community opened a Jewish elementary school, which contained three classes. 130 students were enrolled in the school in 1890, but the school eventually closed due to lack of enrollment. Other communal institutions included a chevra kaddisha (founded around 1870), a women’s society and a Talmud Torah society. A number of local Jews enlisted in the Austro-Hungarian army during World War I (1914-1918); 14 fell in battle. Their names were inscribed on a memorial tablet in the synagogue. The Republic of Czechoslovakia, which was established in the wake of World War I, recognized the Jews as a national minority with concurrent rights. This prompted a surge in Zionist activity in Podivin and throughout the region. An Eretz Yisrael organization was formed, along with the sports organization Maccabi and the youth movement Maccabi HaTzair. In 1926, prior to the elections to the 15th Zionist Congress, community members purchased membership and voting rights; before the elections to the 20th Zionist Congress in 1927, far fewer community members purchased membership and voting rights. The Jewish community, which numbered 42 families in 1768 and 81 families (407 people) in 1787, reached its peak size in 1857, when the Jewish population was 684. Later, the population gradually began to decline. In 1900 there were 435 Jews living in Podivin. In 1921 about 300 Jews were living in the town, most of whom spoke Czech. In 1930 there were 196 Jews living in Podivin. An interesting, and unique, fact about the community is that it included 14 families with the last name of Spitz. Apparently they had all originally arrived in Podivin from a small town of the same name on the Danube River. THE HOLOCAUST In March, 1939, Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the region's Jews. The Jews of Podivin were sent to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto beginning in late 1941 through 1942. From there they were deported to concentration and death camps, where most perished. Before the community was sent to Terezin, 150 documents, 4 books, and 150 ritual objects from the community were sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR Six Jews from the original community returned to Podivin after the war. Jewish life in the town was not revived.

Polna A town in the Czech Republic Polna's synagogue was renovated between 2011 and 2014, as was the rabbi's house, which is located next door to the synagogue. The rabbi's house includes a winter prayer room, as well as a mikveh (ritual bath). The synagogue contains an exhibit on the history of Polna's Jewish community. There is also an exhibit about the Hilsner blood libel; the murder prompting the blood libel took place near Polna, and the Jewish man who was falsely accused was from Polna. The cemetery can be accessed with permission. One of the Torah scrolls that was sent from Polna to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague during World War II has been on permanent loan to Congregation Beth Shalom in Kona, Hawaii, since 1985. HISTORY Jews are mentioned as living in the area in sources dating to 1415; two Jewish families are listed as living in Polna itself in 1570. A law manual for the town from 1582 also contains an option for oaths that Jews could take when they appeared in court. A Jewish cemetery was established in 1619. In 1681 Jewish and town representatives signed an agreement to build a Jewish Quarter of 16 houses (one of its gates was still standing as of 1970). The synagogue was built in 1684 and renovated during the 18th century. The synagogue, along with 32 homes, was destroyed in a fire that broke out in 1863; it was subsequently rebuilt. There were 27 Jewish families living in Polna in 1724, and 541 Jews lived in the town in 1847. In 1869 there were 430 Jews in Polna, and 238 in 1890. In 1930 the community numbered 51 (1.2% of the total population). The Hilsner blood libel trial of 1899 was a major incident in Polna; Leopold Hilsner, who was accused of murdering a Christian woman in a forest near Polna, was from the town. THE HOLOCAUST In 1942 the Jews who remained in Polna were deported to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto; from there they were sent to concentration and death camps. Before the deportation to Terezin, the synagogue equipment was sent to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. The synagogue was used to store confiscated Jewish property.

Prague Capital of the Czech Republic. Formerly the capital of Czechoslovakia. It has the oldest Jewish community in Bohemia and one of the oldest communities in Europe, for some time the largest and most revered. Jews may have arrived in Prague in late roman times, but the first document mentioning them is a report by Ibrahim Ibn Ya'qub from about 970. The first definite evidence for the existence of a Jewish community in Prague dates to 1091. Jews arrived in Prague from both the east and west around the same time. It is probably for this reason that two Jewish districts came into being there right at the beginning. The relatively favorable conditions in which the Jews at first lived in Prague were disrupted at the time of the first crusade in 1096. The crusaders murdered many of the Jews in Prague, looted Jewish property, and forced many to accept baptism. During the siege of Prague castle in 1142, the oldest synagogue in Prague and the Jewish quarter below the castle were burned down and the Jews moved to the right bank of the river Moldau (vltava), which was to become the future Jewish quarter, and founded the "Altschul" ("old synagogue") there. The importance of Jewish culture in Prague is evidenced by the works of the halakhists there in the 11th to 13th centuries. The most celebrated was Isaac B. Moses of Vienna (d. C. 1250) author of "Or Zaru'a". Since the Czech language was spoken by the Jews of Prague in the early middle ages, the halakhic writings of that period also contain annotations in Czech. From the 13th to 16th centuries the Jews of Prague increasingly spoke German. At the time of persecutions which began at the end of the 11th century, the Jews of Prague, together with all the other Jews of Europe, lost their status as free people. From the 13th century on, the Jews of Bohemia were considered servants of the royal chamber (servi camerae regis). Their residence in Prague was subject to the most humiliating conditions (the wearing of special dress, segregation in the ghetto, etc.). The only occupation that Jews were allowed to adopt was moneylending, since this was forbidden to Christians and considered dishonest. Socially the Jews were in an inferior position. The community suffered from persecutions accompanied by bloodshed in the 13th and 14th centuries, particularly in 1298 and 1338. Charles IV (1346- 1378) protected the Jews, but after his death the worst attack occurred in 1389, when nearly all the Jews of Prague fell victims. The rabbi of Prague and noted kabbalist Avigdor Kara, who witnessed and survived the outbreak, described it in a selichah. Under Wenceslaus IV the Jews of Prague suffered heavy material losses following an order by the king in 1411 canceling all debts owed to Jews. At the beginning of the 15th century the Jews of Prague found themselves at the center of the Hussite wars (1419- 1436). The Jews of Prague also suffered from mob violence (1422) in this period. The unstable conditions in Prague compelled many Jews to emigrate. Following the legalization, at the end of the 15th century, of moneylending by non-Jews in Prague, the Jews of Prague lost the economic significance which they had held in the medieval city, and had to look for other occupations in commerce and crafts. The position of the Jews began to improve at the beginning of the 16th century, mainly owing to the assistance of the king and the nobility. The Jews found greater opportunities in trading commodities and monetary transactions with the nobility. As a consequence, their economic position improved. In 1522 there were about 600 Jews in Prague, but by 1541 they numbered about 1,200. At the same time the Jewish quarters were extended. At the end of the 15th century the Jews of Prague founded new communities. Under pressure of the citizens, king Ferdinand I was compelled in 1541 to approve the expulsion of the Jews. The Jews had to leave Prague by 1543, but were allowed to return in 1545. In 1557 Ferdinand I once again, this time upon his own initiative, ordered the expulsion of the Jews from Prague. They had to leave the city by 1559. Only after the retirement of Ferdinand I from the government of Bohemia were the Jews allowed to return to Prague in 1562. The favorable position of the Jewish community of Prague during the reign of Rudolf II is reflected also in the flourishing Jewish culture. Among illustrious rabbis who taught in Prague at that time were Judah Loew B. Bezalel (the "maharal"); Ephraim Solomon B. Aaron of Luntschitz; Isaiah B. Abraham ha-levi Horowitz, who taught in Prague from 1614 to 1621; and Yom Tov Lipmann Heller, who became chief rabbi in 1627 but was forced to leave in 1631. The chronicler and astronomer David Gans also lived there in this period. At the beginning of the 17th century about 6,000 Jews were living in Prague. In 1648 the Jews of Prague distinguished themselves in the defense of the city against the invading swedes. In recognition of their acts of heroism the Emperor presented them with a special flag which is still preserved in the Altneuschul. Its design with a Swedish cap in the center of the Shield of David became the official emblem of the Prague Jewish community. After the thirty years' war, government policy was influenced by the church counter-reformation, and measures were taken to limit the Jews' means of earning a livelihood. A number of anti-Semitic resolutions and decrees were promulgated. Only the eldest son of every family was allowed to marry and found a family, the others having to remain single or leave Bohemia. In 1680, more than 3,000 Jews in Prague died of the plague. Shortly afterward, in 1689, the Jewish quarter burned down, and over 300 Jewish houses and 11 synagogues were destroyed. The authorities initiated and partially implemented a project to transfer all the surviving Jews to the village of Lieben (Liben) north of Prague. Great excitement was aroused in 1694 by the murder trial of the father of Simon Abeles, a 12-year-old boy, who, it was alleged, had desired to be baptized and had been killed by his father. Simon was buried in the Tyn (Thein) church, the greatest and most celebrated cathedral of the old town of Prague. Concurrently with the religious incitement against the Jews an economic struggle was waged against them. The anti-Jewish official policy reached its climax after the accession to the throne of Maria Theresa (1740-1780), who in 1744 issued an order expelling the Jews from Bohemia and Moravia. Jews were banished but were subsequently allowed to return after they promised to pay high taxes. In the baroque period noted rabbis were Simon Spira; Elias Spira; David Oppenheim; and Ezekiel Landau, chief rabbi and rosh yeshivah (1755-93(. The position of the Jews greatly improved under Joseph II (1780-1790), who issued the Toleranzpatent of 1782. The new policy in regard to the Jews aimed at gradual abolition of the limitations imposed upon them, so that they could become more useful to the state in a modernized economic system. At the same time, the new regulations were part of the systematic policy of germanization pursued by Joseph II. Jews were compelled to adopt family names and to establish schools for secular studies; they became subject to military service, and were required to cease using Hebrew and Yiddish in business transactions. Wealthy and enterprising Jews made good use of the advantages of Joseph's reforms. Jews who founded manufacturing enterprises were allowed to settle outside the Jewish quarter of Prague. Subsequently the limitations imposed upon Jews were gradually removed. In 1841 the prohibition on Jews owning land was rescinded. In 1846 the Jewish tax was abolished. In 1848 Jews were granted equal rights, and by 1867 the process of legal emancipation had been completed. In 1852 the ghetto of Prague was abolished. Because of the unhygienic conditions in the former Jewish quarter the Prague municipality decided in 1896 to pull down the old quarter, with the exception of important historical sites. Thus the Altneuschul, the Pinkas and Klaus, Meisel and Hoch synagogues, and some other places of historical and artistic interest remained intact. In 1848 the community of Prague, numbering over 10,000, was still one of the largest Jewish communities in Europe (Vienna then numbered only 4,000 Jews). In the following period of the emancipation and the post- emancipation era the Prague community increased considerably in numbers, but did not keep pace with the rapidly expanding new Jewish metropolitan centers in western, central, and Eastern Europe. After emancipation had been achieved in 1867, emigration from Prague abroad ceased as a mass phenomenon; movement to Vienna, Germany, and Western Europe continued. Jews were now represented in industry, especially the textile, clothing, leather, shoe, and food industries, in wholesale and retail trade, and in increasing numbers in the professions and as white-collar employees. Some Jewish bankers, industrialists and merchants achieved considerable wealth. The majority of Jews in Prague belonged to the middle class, but there also remained a substantial number of poor Jews. Emancipation brought in its wake a quiet process of secularization and assimilation. In the first decades of the 19th century Prague Jewry, which then still led its traditionalist orthodox way of life, had been disturbed by the activities of the followers of Jacob Frank. The situation changed in the second half of the century. The chief rabbinate was still occupied by outstanding scholars, like Solomon Judah Rapoport, the leader of the Haskalah movement; Markus Hirsch (1880-1889) helped to weaken the religious influence in the community. Many synagogues introduced modernized services, a shortened liturgy, the organ and mixed choir, but did not necessarily embrace the principles of the reform movement. Jews availed themselves eagerly of the opportunities to give their children a higher secular education. Jews formed a considerable part of the German minority in Prague, and the majority adhered to liberal movements. David Kuh founded the "German liberal party of Bohemia and represented it in the Bohemian diet (1862-1873). Despite strong Germanizing factors, many Jews adhered to the Czech language, and in the last two decades of the 19th century a Czech assimilationist movement developed which gained support from the continuing influx of Jews from the rural areas. Through the influence of German nationalists from the Sudeten districts anti-Semitism developed within the German population and opposed Jewish assimilation. At the end of the 19th century Zionism struck roots among the Jews of Bohemia, especially in Prague. Growing secularization and assimilation led to an increase of mixed marriages and abandonment of Judaism. At the time of the Czechoslovak republic, established in 1918, many more people registered their dissociation of affiliation to the Jewish faith without adopting another. The proportion of mixed marriages in Bohemia was one of the highest in Europe. The seven communities of Prague were federated in the union of Jewish religious communities of greater Prague and cooperated on many issues. They established joint institutions; among these the most important was the institute for social welfare, established in 1935. The "Afike Jehuda society for the Advancement of Jewish Studies" was founded in 1869. There were also the Jewish museum and "The Jewish historical society of Czechoslovakia". A five-grade elementary school was established with Czech as the language of instruction. The many philanthropic institutions and associations included the Jewish care for the sick, the center for social welfare, the aid committee for refugees, the aid committee for Jews from Carpatho- Russia, orphanages, hostels for apprentices, old-age homes, a home for abandoned children, free-meal associations, associations for children's vacation centers, and funds to aid students. Zionist organizations were also well represented. There were three B'nai B'rith lodges, women's organizations, youth movements, student clubs, sports organizations, and a community center. Four Jewish weeklies were published in Prague (three Zionist; one Czech- assimilationist), and several monthlies and quarterlies. Most Jewish organizations in Czechoslovakia had their headquarters in Prague. Jews first became politically active, and some of them prominent, within the German orbit. David Kuh and the president of the Jewish community, Arnold Rosenbacher, were among the leaders of the German Liberal party in the 19th century. Bruno Kafka and Ludwig Spiegel represented its successor in the Czechoslovak republic, the German Democratic Party, in the chamber of deputies and the senate respectively. Emil Strauss represented that party in the 1930s on the Prague Municipal Council and in the Bohemian diet. From the end of the 19th century an increasing number of Jews joined Czech parties, especially T. G. Masaryk's realists and the social democratic party. Among the latter Alfred Meissner, Lev Winter, and Robert Klein rose to prominence, the first two as ministers of justice and social welfare respectively. Zionists, though a minority, soon became the most active element among the Jews of Prague. "Barissia" - Jewish Academic Corporation, was founded in Prague in 1903, it was one of the leading academic organizations for the advancement of Zionism in Bohemia. Before World War I the students' organization "Bar Kochba", under the leadership of Samuel Hugo Bergman, became one of the centers of cultural Zionism. The Prague Zionist Arthur Mahler was elected to the Austrian parliament in 1907, though as representative of an electoral district in Galicia. Under the leadership of Ludvik Singer the "Jewish National Council" was formed in 1918. Singer was elected in 1929 to the Czechoslovak parliament, and was succeeded after his death in 1931 by Angelo Goldstein. Singer, Goldstein, Frantisek Friedmann, and Jacob Reiss represented the Zionists on the Prague municipal council also. Some important Zionist conferences took place in Prague, among them the founding conference of hitachadut in 1920, and the 18th Zionist congress in 1933. The group of Prague German-Jewish authors which emerged in the 1880s, known as the "Prague Circle" ('der Prager Kreis'), achieved international recognition and included Franz Kafka, Max Brod, Franz Werfel, Oskar Baum, Ludwig Winder, Leo Perutz, Egon Erwin Kisch, Otto Klepetar, and Willy Haas. During the Holocaust period, the measures e.g., deprivation of property rights, prohibition against religious, cultural, or any other form of public activity, expulsion from the professions and from schools, a ban on the use of public transportation and the telephone, affected Prague Jews much more than those still living in the provinces. Jewish organizations provided social welfare and clandestinely continued the education of the youth and the training in languages and new vocations in preparation for emigration. The Palestine office in Prague, directed by Jacob Edelstein, enabled about 19,000 Jews to emigrate legally or otherwise until the end of 1939. In March 1940, the Prague zentralstelle extended the area of its jurisdiction to include all of Bohemia and Moravia. In an attempt to obviate the deportation of the Jews to "the east", Jewish leaders, headed by Jacob Edelstein, proposed to the zentralstelle the establishment of a self- administered concentrated Jewish communal body; the Nazis eventually exploited this proposal in the establishment of a ghetto at Theresienstadt (Terezin). The Prague Jewish community was forced to provide the Nazis with lists of candidates for deportation and to ensure that they showed up at the assembly point and boarded deportation trains. In the period from October 6, 1941, to March 16, 1945, 46,067 Jews were deported from Prague to "the east" or to Theresienstadt. Two leading officials of the Jewish community, H. Bonn and Emil Kafka were dispatched to Mauthausen concentration camp and put to death after trying to slow down the pace of the deportations. The Nazis set up a treuhandstelle ("trustee Office") over evacuated Jewish apartments, furnishings, and possessions. This office sold these goods and forwarded the proceeds to the German winterhilfe ("winter aid"). The treuhandstelle ran as many as 54 warehouses, including 11 synagogues (as a result, none of the synagogues was destroyed). The zentralstelle brought Jewish religious articles from 153 Jewish communities to Prague on a proposal by Jewish scholars. This collection, including 5,400 religious objects, 24,500 prayer books, and 6,070 items of historical value the Nazis intended to utilize for a "central museum of the defunct Jewish race". Jewish historians engaged in the creation of the museum were deported to extermination camps just before the end of the war. Thus the Jewish museum had acquired at the end of the war one of the richest collections of Judaica in the world. Prague had a Jewish population of 10,338 in 1946, of whom 1,396 Jews had not been deported (mostly of mixed Jewish and Christian parentage); 227 Jews had gone underground; 4,986 returned from prisons, concentration camps, or Theresienstadt; 883 returned from Czechoslovak army units abroad; 613 were Czechoslovak Jewish emigres who returned; and 2,233 were Jews from Ruthenia (Carpatho-Ukraine), which had been ceded to the U.S.S.R. who decided to move to Czechoslovakia. The communist takeover of 1948 put an end to any attempt to revive the Jewish community and marked the beginning of a period of stagnation. By 1950 about half of the Jewish population had gone to Israel or immigrated to other countries. The Slansky trials and the officially promoted anti-Semitism had a destructive effect upon Jewish life. Nazi racism of the previous era was replaced by political and social discrimination. Most of the Jews of Prague were branded as "class enemies of the working people". During this Period (1951-1964) there was no possibility of Jewish emigration from the country. The assets belonging to the Jewish community had to be relinquished to the state. The charitable organizations were disbanded, and the budget of the community, provided by the state, was drastically reduced. The general anti-religious policy of the regime resulted in the cessation, for all practical purposes, of such Jewish religious activities as bar-mitzvah religious instruction and wedding ceremonies. In 1964 only two cantors and two ritual slaughterers were left. The liberalization of the regime during 1965-1968 held out new hope for a renewal of Jewish life in Prague. At the end of March 1967 the president of "The World Jewish Congress", Nahum Goldmann, was able to visit Prague and give a lecture in the Jewish town hall. Among the Jewish youth many tended to identify with Judaism. Following the soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 there was an attempt to put an end to this trend, however the Jewish youth, organized since 1965, carried on with their Jewish cultural activities until 1972. In the late 6os the Jewish population of Prague numbered about 2,000. On the walls of the Pinkas synagogue, which is part of the central Jewish museum in Prague, are engraved the names of 77,297 Jews from Bohemia and Moravia who were murdered by the Nazis in 1939-1945. In 1997 some 6,000 Jews were living in the Czech Republic, most of them in Prague. The majority of the Jews of Prague were indeed elderly, but the Jewish community's strengthened in 1990's by many Jews, mainly American, who had come to work in the republic, settled in Prague, and joined the community. In April 2000 the central square of Prague was named Franz Kafka square. This was done thanks to the unflinching efforts and after years of straggle with the authorities, of Professor Eduard Goldstucker, a Jew born in Prague, the initiator of the idea.

Prerov German: Prerau A town in the Olomouc Region, Czech Republic Prerov is located 14 miles (approximately 22km) southeast of Olomouc. Until 1918 it was part of the Austrian Empire. During the interwar period, and between the end of World War II until 1993, it was part of the Republic of Czechoslovakia. The synagogue building has been used as an Orthodox church since 1951; at the beginning of the 21st century the church was repaired and two memorial tablets were placed in the church, commemorating the Jewish and Orthodox victims of World War II. The new Jewish cemetery, which was consecrated at the end of the 19th century, can be accessed freely. Its size was reduced after World War II in order to develop the surrounding area, but a few hundred tombstones (including some that were transferred from the destroyed old cemetery) have remained standing. The cemetery includes a special section for refugees. HISTORY Jews are on record as living in Prerov before the 14th century; by 1447 there is mention of a Jewish street in the suburb of Sirsava. Prerov's Jewish community grew when the Jews of Olomouc were expelled in 1454 and some came to settle in Prerov. The Jews lived in Prerov under the protection of the local nobility, who granted them a number of rights. In 1564 eight Jewish families lived in the town with permission; other Jews lived in the town illegally, though the exact number of illegal Jewish residents is unknown. By 1614 the number of Jewish families living in Prerov had grown to 16. In 1638 they were permitted to consecrate a cemetery, to set up prayer houses, to build a hospital, and to install a water system for a mikveh (ritual bath). Jews were also granted permission to purchase homes. The first Jews who settled at Prerov were mostly traders. In 1355 they were permitted to trade in the town’s markets on Tuesdays and Friday, once every two weeks. Other Jews worked as craftsmen and farmers. The protection charges that the Jews had to pay were high, and they also paid considerable taxes for trading rights, as well as for every new Jewish settler in the town. In the year 1600 the right of Jews to own inns was temporarily repealed, and was renewed in the middle of the century. An earthquake in 1590, a storm in 1591, and a flood in 1593 resulted in heavy damages in the town and the Jewish Quarter. Later, in 1664 the town suffered heavy damages after a fire. In 1717, after a plague epidemic, only 82 people remained in Prerov. Seven more fires broke out between 1762 and 1828, each of which wreaked havoc and destruction in the town. Sixty-four houses on the Jewish Street burned down in 1831. In addition to the considerable property damage, the Jews had to contend with the fact that each time that the town's ownership changed hands, they needed to fight for their rights to be renewed. The Jewish community began to flourish only after 1848, when Jews throughout the Austrian Empire were emancipated, and economic and residence restrictions were subsequently removed. A synagogue was built in 1860 at the western end of the Jewish street, on the same site where an older synagogue, which was already in use by the 17th century, had been destroyed by fire in 1832. The old cemetery was consecrated in 1515 and closed down around 1888. A new cemetery was established in its place in 1882. Other communal institutions included a community house and a library. In 1724 Jews owned 14 houses in Prerov; by 1830 that number had risen to 21 houses. In 1829 there were 44 Jewish families (286 people) living n Prerov. By 1834 that number had increased to 341, out of a total population of 4,583. In 1901 the Jewish population reached 717, out of a total population of approximately 17,000. In 1921, when the community was led by Heinrich Tauber, the Jewish community numbered 336 people, out of a total population of 49,569. The community of Prerov was officially recognized in 1877; at that time the head of the community was Sigmund Hahndl. Hahndl was the first of 15 more community leaders, the last of whom was Dr. Wilhelm Roubicek, who was appointed in 1926. Among the rabbis who served the community were Rabbi Abraham, most probably the first Rabbi of the community, who served during the 16th century, Rabbi Isak Homburg, who served at the end of the 17th century, Rabbi Samuel Schick, a frequent correspondent of Rabbi Moses Sofer (the Hatam Sofer), who served towards the end of the 18th century ; Rabbi Solomon Fried, who was appointed in 1793, Dr. Jacob Tauber, who was appointed in 1886, Dr. Oskar Karpeles, who served as a rabbi in the army during World War I, and Dr. Leopold Goldschmied, who served during the 1930s. After the emancipation of 1848, Jews were no longer subject to economic restrictions and could choose to work in a number of professions. In addition to shopkeeping, Jews worked as physicians, lawyers, and teachers. When Prerov became connected to the country’s railway network, Jews were employed both as workmen and as railway company officials. The Republic of Czechoslovakia, which was established in the wake of World War I, the Jews were recognized as a national minority with concurrent rights, prompting many Jews to participate in political life, as well as to begin identifying themselves as Jewish nationals. In 1919 a delegate from the Jewish National Party was elected to the town’s council. Students from the Masada society worked to spread Zionism during their university vacations, and the youth movements Maccabi and Blau Weiss were also active. In 1926, in anticipation of elections to the 15th Zionist Congress, community members from Prerov purchased 119 shekels (membership in the zionist organization and a voting right); in 1937, during the elections to the 20th Zionist Congress, 15 members of the community participated. In 1930 there were 267 Jews living in Prerov. Among the notable figures from Prerov was the composer and pianist Gideon Klein, who was born in Prerov in 1919 and was killed in 1945 at the Fuerstengrube concentration camp. THE HOLOCAUST In March, 1939 Bohemia and Moravia became a protectorate of Nazi Germany, ushering in a period of discrimination and violence against the Jews living there. Beginning at the end of 1941 Jews throughout the region, including Prerov, were sent to the Terezin (Theresienstadt) Ghetto. From there they were deported to concentration and death camps, where most perished. Before the community was expelled to Terezin, 338 documents, 20 books, and 82 ritual objects from Prerov were transferred to the Central Jewish Museum in Prague. POSTWAR Four survivors returned to Prerov after the war, but Jewish life was not renewed. Beginning in 1950 the synagogue building was used by the Orthodox Church. Local authorities demolished the ancient cemetery in 1956, and some of the tombstones were transferred to the new cemetery. In 1980, however, the area encompassing the new cemetery was reduced, and the Zidduk Hadin pavilion was destroyed.

Prostejov (in German: Prossnitz) A town in central Moravia, Czech Republic. From the middle ages Prostejov was a center for the textile and ready-made clothing industries, in which Jews played an important part. A Jew is mentioned in a document of 1445. The Jewish community, founded by people expelled from nearby Olomouc/Olmuetz in 1454, was since the 17th to the 19th century, second only to Mikulov (Nikolsburg) among the communities of Moravia. The Jews dealt in luxury goods and locally made textiles. In 1584 the Jews' right of residence was confirmed but the branches of trade open to them were restricted. The community then numbered 31 families. A minute book ("Pinkas") opened in 1587 began with the "Takkanot" of Judah Loew Ben Bezalel regulating synagogal arrangements. A compendium of Sabbath hymns, Kol Simchah, was printed in 1602 by a short-lived local printing house. The Jewish community and its importance in local industry increased after the protestant inhabitants had left when the town became Roman Catholic under duress. In 1639 there were 143 Jewish men in Prostejov and 64 houses in the town were owned by Jews. Prostejov absorbed many refugees after the Chmielnicki massacres in 1648 and the Vienna expulsion in 1670. The community numbered 64 families in 1669. The synagogue was dedicated in 1676. The first-known rabbi was Isaac Chayyut Ben Abraham (d. 1639); among his successors were Meir Ben Isaac Ashkenazi and Wolf Boskowitz. The Prostejov rabbinate was a stepping-stone to the office of Landrabbiner for Menahem Krochmal and Nahum Trebitsch. A compromise reached in 1677 (and supplemented in 1688) concerning the extent of trade between Jews and gentiles testifies to the importance of Jewish participation in the textile and clothing trades. The community numbered 318 families in 1713, 1,393 persons in 1787, and 1,495 in 1798. The number of families allotted under the familiants law was 328. The Prostejov community was strongly influenced by the Shabbatean movement, and one of its leaders, Judah Leib Prossnitz, lived in the town. The community was also affected by Frankism and was one of the first to absorb the ideas of the Haskalah. The first sermon in German in the Hapsburg dominions was preached there by Loew Schwab (1835). In 1843 a Jew founded a private elementary school for Jewish and Christian children. In 1831 Feith Ehrenstamm founded a factory, the beginning of Jewish enterprise in modern textile industry. By 1842 there were 135 Jewish textile merchants in Prostejov. The first factory for ready-made clothes on the European continent was founded by Mayer and Isaac Mandel in 1859. The 200 Jews in the national guard units were lauded for their conduct in fighting during the Anti-Jewish riots in 1848. Prostejov became a political community (Politische Gemeinde) in 1849. In 1880 there were 1,804 Jews in Prostejov. The community absorbed many World War I refugees from eastern Europe. Between the two World Wars the community was one of the most active in Czechoslovakia and the first to arrange modern Hebrew courses. The clothing industry, represented mainly by the Sborowitz firm, which had 108 sales establishments throughout Czechoslovakia and a vast export business, brought affluence to the community which attracted many new members from sub- Carpathian Ruthenia (Carpatho-Russia). In 1930 the community numbered 1,442 (4.3% of the total). Among the natives of the town were Menahem Katz, rabbi of the Deutschkreutz community and leader of Hungarian orthodoxy, Gideon Brecher, physician and author of a booklet on circumcision, his son Adolph, author and physician, and the bibliographer Moritz Steinschneider. Jonathan Eybeschuetz and Adolf and Hermann Jellinek were among the pupils of the Prostejov Yeshivah. Many refugees from the Sudeten area arrived in Prostejov in autumn 1938. After the German invasion (March 1939) Jews suffered from Gestapo raids, mainly in July when the synagogue also was closed. Many Jews left Prostejov during 1940. Those who remained were deported to the Nazi extermination camps in 1942. The synagogue appurtenances were transferred to the Jewish Central Museum in Prague. In 1945 a small congregation administered by the Olomouc community was reestablished, mostly by Jews from sub-Carpathian Ruthenia. A memorial to the victims of the Holocaust was consecrated in 1950. The congregation was still active in 1969.

TRENCIN (SLOVAK TRENCIN HUNG. TRENCSEN; GER. TRENTSCHIN) A TOWN IN WESTERN SLOVAKIA. DESPITE THE LACK OF WRITTEN EVIDENCE IT SEEMS PROBABLE THAT JEWS - PROTECTED BY ROYAL PRIVILEGES - ALREADY PLAYED AN IMPORTANT PART IN COMMERCE THERE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. AFTER THE BATTLE OF MOHACS (1526), JEWS WERE PROHIBITED FROM SETTLING IN THE TOWN, BUT WERE LIVING IN NEIGHBORING VILLAGES. IN THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES THE RESTRICTIONS IMPOSED ON THE JEWS IN MORAVIA, SUCH AS THE PROHIBITION ON MARRIAGE, LED MANY TO MOVE TO NORTHERN HUNGARY, SOME OF WHOM SETTLED IN TRENCIN, IN PARTICULAR FROM UHERSKY BROD. THESE SETTLERS REMAINED AFFILIATED TO UHERSKY BROD FOR ABOUT A CENTURY. AN ORGANIZED COMMUNITY WAS ESTABLISHED ABOUT 1760; ITS FIRST RABBI, DAVID KOHN CHASSID (D. 1783), WAS BURIED IN THE ALREADY EXISTING JEWISH CEMETERY. THE TAX ROSTER OF 1787 CONTAINS THE NAMES OF 82 HEADS OF FAMILIES IN THE CITY OF TRENCIN AND 660 MORE IN THE COUNTY. THE FIRST SYNAGOGUE WAS REPLACED BY AN IMPOSING NEW EDIFICE IN 1913. A GERMAN- LANGUAGE JEWISH SCHOOL WAS FOUNDED IN 1857. THE COMMUNITY GREW RAPIDLY, AND AFTER WORLD WAR I CONTINUED TO GAIN IMPORTANCE IN CZECHOSLOVAKIA. IT MAINTAINED A NUMBER OF INSTITUTIONS, AND ZIONIST GROUPS WERE ACTIVE, MAINLY AMONG THE YOUTH. NOTED PERSONALITIES ORIGINATING FROM TRENCIN WERE IGNAZ SZEGHO, JUSTICE OF THE SUPREME COURT OF HUNGARY; MARKUS KORANYI, DIRECTOR OF THE ROTHSCHILD HOSPITAL IN VIENNA; IGNAZ ZIEGLER, RABBI OF KARLSBAD, AND BENJAMIN FISCHER, ORTHODOX RABBI IN BUDAPEST. THERE WERE ABOUT 2,500 JEWS LIVING IN TRENCIN IN 1940. MOST OF THEM WERE DEPORTED TO CONCENTRATION CAMPS. AFTER THE WAR SOME 300 TO 400 RETURNED FROM THE CAMPS OR FROM FORESTS WHERE THEY HAD BEEN IN HIDING. THE MAJORITY SUBSEQUENTLY EMIGRATED TO ISRAEL OR OTHER COUNTRIES OR MOVED TO LARGER CITIES. AFTER THE SOVIET INVASION IN 1968, MOST OF THE FEW WHO HAD REMAINED LEFT FOR THE WEST. IN 1971 THERE WERE A FEW JEWISH FAMILIES IN TRENCIN WHO OBSERVED THE MAIN JEWISH FESTIVALS AND BURIED THEIR DEAD ACCORDING TO JEWISH RITUAL.

Conductor. Born near Sobeslav, Czechoslovakia, Ancerl studied in Prague. During the Nazi occupation of Czechoslovakia, he was deported to a concentration camp. After World War II, Ancerl directed the Prague Opera between 1947-1950. Between 1950-1968, he served as the music director of the Radio Symphony Orchestra in Prague and of the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra. In 1969 he was appointed director of the Toronto Symphony Orchestra. He died in Toronto, Canada.

Aszod, Judah Ben Israel (1794-1866), rabbi, born in Aszod (Pest region), Hungary (then part of the Austrian Empire). He studied at the yeshivah of Rabbi Mordechai Banet in Nikolsburg, Moravia (now in the Czech Republic). He received his rabbinical diploma at the age of 22. At first Aszod served as rabbi in Reth, later in Szenice. From 1826 to 1830 he served as dayyan in Dunaszerdahely (now Dunajska Streda, Slovak Republic), and later in other communities, and from 1853 he was Chief Rabbi of Dunaszerdahely, and headed a yeshivah there, which attracted many pupils. He was a member of the Orthodox rabbinical delegation to the Emperor Franz Joseph in Vienna in 1864, which appealed to him to cancel the proposed plan for a government-sponsored rabbinical seminary. Aszod was much respected by his co-religionists, as well as by the Christian population. Aszod's collection of responsa, "Teshuvot Maharia" (Moreno ha'Rav Judah Aszod), also called Jehudah Ya'aleh (1873), arranged according to the four divisions of the "Shulhan Arukh", is regarded as one of the best works of its kind. He also published several collections of insights into the Torah and Talmudic themes named "Hiddushei Maharia".

Brod, Max (1884-1968) Author and composer. Born in Prague, Czechoslovakia, Brod studied law and graduated in 1907 from the German University in Prague. He was active in the Zionist movement from 1910 onwards and in 1918 he co-founded the National Council of the Jews of Czechoslovakia and was elected its vice president. He worked for the Czech government until 1924. Brod gradually began to focus his interests on literature and served as the theatre and music critic for the Prager Tagblatt between 1924-1939. At the same time he began developing his writing career. In 1939 Brod fled to Eretz Israel, where he settled in Tel Aviv. From the time of his immigration until his death, he served as the artistic adviser of Habimah National Theatre and as music critic for Yedioth Chadashoth, a German language daily published in Tel Aviv. Brod is author of many writings including the philosophical work Heidentum, Christentum, Judentum (1921), twenty novels (including Der Frau, nach der man sich sehnt, 1927, and Tycho Brahes Weg zu Gott, 1916), plays (including Die Koenigin Esther, 1918, Die Faelscher, 1920), biographies (including Franz Kafka, Leos Janacek, 1924-25, and the composer and Brod’s own piano teacher, Adolph Schreiber) and an autobiography (1960). He also arranged for publication of Kafka’s writings. Brod translated the librettos of Janacek’s operas into German. His musical compositions include APHORISMEN for piano (1938-39); REQUIEM HEBRAICUM for baritone and orchestra (1942), LA MEDITERRANEE, a rhapsody for piano, 8 LIEDER for voice and piano and TOD UND PARADIES, 2 songs for voice and piano (1952). He died in Tel Aviv.

Brod, Max (1884-1968) Author and composer. Born in Prague, Czechoslovakia, Brod studied law and graduated in 1907 from the German University in Prague. He was active in the Zionist movement from 1910 onwards and in 1918 he co-founded the National Council of the Jews of Czechoslovakia and was elected its vice president. He worked for the Czech government until 1924. Brod gradually began to focus his interests on literature and served as the theatre and music critic for the Prager Tagblatt between 1924-1939. At the same time he began developing his writing career. In 1939 Brod fled to Eretz Israel, where he settled in Tel Aviv. From the time of his immigration until his death, he served as the artistic adviser of Habimah National Theatre and as music critic for Yedioth Chadashoth, a German language daily published in Tel Aviv. Brod is author of many writings including the philosophical work Heidentum, Christentum, Judentum (1921), twenty novels (including Der Frau, nach der man sich sehnt, 1927, and Tycho Brahes Weg zu Gott, 1916), plays (including Die Koenigin Esther, 1918, Die Faelscher, 1920), biographies (including Franz Kafka, Leos Janacek, 1924-25, and the composer and Brod’s own piano teacher, Adolph Schreiber) and an autobiography (1960). He also arranged for publication of Kafka’s writings. Brod translated the librettos of Janacek’s operas into German. His musical compositions include APHORISMEN for piano (1938-39); REQUIEM HEBRAICUM for baritone and orchestra (1942), LA MEDITERRANEE, a rhapsody for piano, 8 LIEDER for voice and piano and TOD UND PARADIES, 2 songs for voice and piano (1952). He died in Tel Aviv.

Bruell, Ignaz (1846-1907) , pianist and composer. Born in Prossnitz, Moravia (Czechoslovakia), Bruell moved to Vienna at the age of three. Bruell showed early talent and toured Europe extensively, giving numerous concerts. In 1878 he gave twenty concerts in London. Bruell composed ten operas (including DAS GOLDENE KREUZ, The Golden Cross, 1875, and DER HUSAR, 1898), two piano concerti and many chamber works. He died in Vienna, Austria.

Zionist leader and head of Theresienstadt ghetto He was born in Horodenka and during World War I his family moved to Brno, Moravia (now in the Czech Republic). Brought up in a Zionist atmosphere, he was active in Zionist youth movements. In 1933 he was appointed head of the Palestine Office of the Hechalutz Zionist movement in Prague. Edelstein went to Palestine in 1937 but was disappointed with his work there and returned to Prague. When the Germans entered Prague in March 1939 he was the Jewish official dealing with emigration to Palestine and became the Jewish representative in contacts with the Germans. He was permitted to travel abroad and everywhere warned Jewish leaders of the dangerous situation that had developed. He had many opportunities to remain abroad but felt his place was in Czechoslovakia. Edelstein did what he could to prevent the deportation of Czech Jews and saw the establishment of the Theresienstadt Ghetto as an achievement in this direction, not realizing that the Germans saw it only as a temporary destination. He himself arrived there in December 1941 and became the first head of its Judenrat. Edelstein stood up courageously on behalf of the inmates, earning the anger of the Germans who dismissed him from his post and sent him and his family to their deaths in Auschwitz.

Engel, Gershon Meir (1917- ), rabbi, born in Satu Mare (Szatmar), Romania (then part of Austria-Hungary), son of Shmuel Haim and Rachel Engel. He studied in the famous yeshivot of Nitra and Pressburg (Bratislava), Slovakia (then in Czecho­slovakia), where he was ordained a rabbi in 1937. During WW 2 he was sent to a Hungarian forcd labour camp, transferred to the Eastern Front and attached to the German OT and Wermacht. He was liberated by the Soviet Army in 1945. In the same year he joined the Haganah in Prague, Czech Republic. Engel immigrated with his family to Israel in 1948, took part in the War of Independence of Israel, and in 1949 joined the Permanent forces as a Chaplain and Administrative Officer at Tel Hashomer until 1956, when he accepted a call from South Africa to come and provide spiritual services to a small country community. Between 1956-1970 he served the Hebrew congregations of Standerton, Welkom and Witbank as rabbi, teacher and shochet. In 1970, Engel was appointed as National Rabbi of Country communities. In this role he traveled the length and breadth of South Africa and South West Africa in an attempt to reach every isolated Jew or Jewish community and managed to provide them with a vast spectrum of spiritual and educational services. His two major contributions were: the provision of Jewish educational audio-visual material including a magazine for children which he edited, and the location and mapping out of all Jewish Cemeteries. This included the registration of every person buried therein, ensuring that each grave had a tombstone and arranging for proper maintenance. Despite his intention to retire in 1982, Rabbi Engel, nevertheless, accepted the calls of the Potchefstroom and Klerksdorp communities where he officiated until 1993. Altogether, he devoted himself to the S. African Jewish Community for 37 years. Wherever he lived, his home was open to all, where true "hachnasat orchim" was practiced, especially in the communities wherein there existed a military unit, with Jewish soldiers: they were all befriended and entertained at the Rabbi's house. Engel was a very friendly, kind and caring person with outstanding abilities to listen, empathize and give appropriate advice. A man of deep faith, he was mentor and guide not only to his congregants, but also to his family in whose lives he was totally involved - despite the great geographic distance. Engle was member of the S.A. Jewish Ex-Service League and of the Hebrew Order of David; Chaplain to the Middelburg Military Camp. He married Adina Reich in 1945 and they had a daughter named Esther.

Frankel, Zecharias (1801–1875), rabbi and historian, born in Prague, Czech Republic (Then part of the Austrian Empire) to a family of distinguished Talmud scholars, and who is considered by many to be the founder of the concept of Conservative Judaism. Frankel was the founder and the most eminent member of the school of historical Judaism, which advocates freedom of research, while upholding the authority of traditional Jewish belief and practice. He was educated in Prague at the yeshivah of Bezalel Ronsperg and then went to Budapest, Hungary, where he studied philosophy, natural sciences and philology at the university between 1825 and 1830. In 1832 he became rabbi of Litomerice, being the first rabbi in Bohemia with a university degree and who gave sermons in German. In 1847 his important work on the Jewish oath, "Die Eidesleistung bei den Juden in Theologischer und Historischer Beziehung" showed the origin of the law in Saxony and other states which discriminated against Jews and claimed that they were not trustworthy witnesses in court. Similarly, the law of Prussia stipulated that the testimony of a Jew against a Christian was valid only in civil cases, and in these only when they involved a sum less than fifty thalers. It was due to Frankel's work, that this discrimination was abolished. Frankel held that reason based on scholarship, and not mere desire on the part of the community, must be the justification for any reforms within Judaism. He introduced some slight modifications in prayer services such as the introduction of a choir of boys, and the like, but he was opposed to any change which was incompatible with traditionalism. He strongly denounced the decision of Rabbi Joseph Hoffmann of Saxe-Meiningen, who permitted Jewish high-school boys to write on the Sabbath. In 1836 he was made chief rabbi of Dresden in Saxony, and in 1843 he was invited to the chief rabbinate at Berlin, Germany, a position that had been vacant since 1800 since the Prussian government “tolerated” Judaism, but refused to give it full legal recognition. Frankel's position in the controversy on the new Hamburg siddur (prayer book) of 1842 displeased both parties. The liberals were unhappy because, instead of declaring that their prayer-book was in accord with Jewish tradition, he pointed out inconsistencies from the traditional prayer book while the Orthodox were dissatisfied because he declared that certain changes were permissible. In an 1845 article published in a Frankfurt-am-Main journal, he announced his withdrawal from the rabbinical conference then in session in the city since they had passed a resolution declaring the Hebrew language unnecessary for public worship. This letter made Frankel one of the leaders of the Conservative movement in Germany. His principles were set out in his monthly "Zeitschrift für die Religiösen Interessen des Judenthums" magazine which he published from 1844 onward. But Frankel's attitude antagonized both opposing sides. He aimed at a synthesis between historical traditional Judaism and contemporary needs through gradual organic reform. Frankel was chosen president of the new rabbinical seminary at Breslau (now Wroclaw, in Poland) in 1854. There his “positivist-historical” school greatly influenced the Conservative movement in the USA. In the seminary he defined the standards, curriculum and qualifications for modern rabbinical training. Frankel attempted to use modern scientific methods and studies in order to improve understanding of the Talmud. This is seen in his introduction to the Mishnah, "Darke ha-Mishnah" (1859) which is a systematic history of early rabbinical literature and theology. His outline of rabbinical marriage law, "Grundlinien des Mosaisch-Talmudischen Eherechts" (1860), was meant to serve as a text-book on that subject. Frankel's studies in the history of Talmudic literature had convinced him that the neglect of the Jerusalem Talmud was a serious drawback in the critical investigation of the development of Talmudic law. To rectify this he published in 1870 his introduction to the Jerusalem Talmud under the title "Mevo ha-Yerushalmi". He then began to write new commentary to the Jerusalem Talmud, but only three treatises appeared before his death. Geiger, leader of the German Liberal Jews of the time and who had pressed for the establishment of the new seminary had vigorously opposed Frankel's appointment. At the other extreme Samson Raphael Hirsch, immediately on the opening of the seminary, addressed an open letter to Frankel, demanding a statement as to the religious principles which would guide the instruction at the new institution. Frankel ignored the challenge. When the fourth volume of Grätz's history appeared in 1856, Hirsch impeached the orthodoxy of the new institution. There followed a ferment of accusations, attacks and counter attacks which filled the ages of the Jewish press of the time. Hirsch wrote a series of articles in which he took exception to Frankel's definition of rabbinical tradition. In reply Frankel pointed out that Rabbenu Asher had stated that not everything called a "law", and reputed as given by Moses on Mount Sinai, was actually of Mosaic origin. Hirsch was supported by various Orthodox rabbis, such as Ezriel Hildesheimer, Solomon Klein of Colmar, and B. H. Auerbach, while some of Frankel's supporters, like Salomon Juda Rappoport, were half-hearted. The general Jewish public remained indifferent to the whole controversy, but Frankel's position was gradually strengthened by the number of graduates from the seminary who earned reputations as scholars and as representatives of Conservative Judaism. He wrote many articles for the two magazines which he edited, the "Zeitschrift für die Religiösen Interessen des Judenthums" (1844-46), and the "Monatsschrift", which was founded in 1851, and which he edited until 1868, when Grätz succeeded him as editor.

Frankl, Adolf (1859-1936),rabbi, banker and communal leader, born in Debrecen, Hungary (then part of Austria-Hungary). He was recognized as a brilliant Talmudic scholar at the Yeshiva of Pozsony (now Bratislava, in Slovakia), and also that of Nagyvarad (now Oradea, in Romanian,). He was ordained as a rabbi in Pressburg although he had no intention of pursuing a rabbinical career. His chose banking as a career but almost immediately upon leaving school Frankl became involved in communal service. He was involved in public affairs both inside and beyond the Jewish community. For eighteen years he served as member of the Budapest municipal council. In 1888 he was made Nasi of the Hungarian Kolel in Jerusalem. Frankl was a lifelong student of Jewish history and traditions. Proficient in several languages, he became an inspiring leader of the Orthodox Jews in Hungary, and corresponded with Orthodox leaders in several countries In 1905 he was unanimously elected national head of the Orthodox Union. After the death of Rabbi Koppel Reich, Frankl was chosen to be chief rabbi of the Orthodox community. As such he became a member of the upper chamber of the Hungarian Parliament. He played a significant role in helping to resolve disputes between the Orthodox and Neologs, and was respected by all sections of the Jewish community. Frankly wrote articles for many publications mainly on Jewish themes such as Halachah and responsa.

Freud, Sigmund (1856-1939), psychoanalyst, born on May 6, 1856, in Freiberg, Moravia (now Pribor, in the Czech Republic) as the third son of Jakob Freud, a Jewish wool merchant, and the first child of his second wife, Amalie Nathansohn. In 1859, the Freud family moved to Leipzig, Germany, but a year after, they settled in Vienna, the city where Sigmund Freud was to live for the next 78 years. Freud graduated from the Sperl Gymnasium in 1873 and turned to medicine as a career studying at the University of Vienna. There he was in contact with Ernst von Brucke (1819-1892), a leading physiologist of his time. In 1882, Freud entered the General Hospital in Vienna as a clinical assistant and three years later was appointed lecturer in neuropathology. Freud continued his studies of neuropathology at the Salpetriere clinic in Paris in 1885 under the guidance of Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893). Freud's acquaintance with Charcot's theories and practice had a significant influence on his career helping him to concentrate his research on the mind as source of neurotic conditions rather than the brain. A short time after his return from Paris, Freud married Martha Bernays, a descendant of a famous Jewish family whose ancestors included Heinrich Heine and a chief rabbi of Hamburg. Having settled at 19 Bergasse in Vienna, his home for more than fifty years, Freud began his collaboration with Josef Breuer (1842-1925). One of Breuer's patients, Bertha Pappenheim, or Anna O., as she is known in the psychoanalytical literature, was later instrumental in developing Freud's method of free association. Freud's fame came with the publication in 1899 of The Interpretation of Dreams who proved to turn into one of the most influential works not only in the field of psychoanalysis, but also in many other scientific, cultural and artistic disciplines. His prolific career is illustrated by a long list of publications, among them the best known are "The Psychopathology of Everyday Life" (1904); "Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious"(1905); "Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality"(1905); "The Origin and Development of Psychoanalysis"(1910); "Beyond the Pleasure Principle" (1920); "The Ego and the Id" (1923). However, Freud also disclosed a keen interest in the field of sociology and social psychology, as proven by a number of significant essays: "Totem und Tabu"(1913); "Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego"(1921); "The Future of an Illusion" (1927); "Civilization and Its Discontents"(1930); "Moses and Monotheism"(1938). Freud was not a practicing Jew, but he never rejected his religion. In an interview with George Sylvester Viereck in 1926 and published a year later, Freud clearly stated his identity: "My language is German. My culture, my attainments are German. I considered myself German intellectually, until I noticed the growth of anti-Semitic prejudice in Germany and German Austria. Since that time I prefer to call myself a Jew." Freud encountered many anti-Semitic incidents during his lifetime, but the worst occurred after the Nazis' seizure of power in Germany. Freud's books were denounced as "expressions of Jewish science" and were publicly burned as early as 1933. When Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany in 1938, Freud was forced to flee the country and with the help of friends settled in England. He died of cancer on September 23, 1939, three weeks after the outbreak of the World War II. \

Rabbi and religious thinker Born in Hamburg, in 1830 he became Chief Rabbi of Oldenburg where he wrote his classic works Nineteen letters on Judaism and Horeb in which he first expounded his theological system. In 1841he became Rabbi of Aurich and Osnabrueck and from 1846 to 1851 lived in Nikolsburg as Chief Rabbi of Moravia. Despite his Orthodoxy, his modern innovations caused a rift with the extreme Orthodox community and he moved to Frankfurt on Main. There he organized an autonomous Orthodox community (separate from the Reform who dominated Frankfurt Jewry) and this became the model for other separatist Orthodox communities throughout Germany. In 1876 he obtained official legislation that gave legal recognition to these Orthodox communities. Hirsch was the founder of Neo-Orthodoxy whose motto was 'Torah with secular knowledge', which became the forerunner of modern Orthodoxy. While remaining Orthodox, he advocated modernization within its framework. He created a network of schools in this spirit and translated key works of Jewish tradition into German, providing them with commentaries that proved highly influential.

Rabbinical authority Born in Prague (now in the Czech Republic) he studied in Poland and was an outstanding Talmudist already in his youth. In 1600 he was head of the beth din in Dubno, from 1602 in Ostrog, (now in the Czech Republic) and from 1606 in Frankfurt on Main, Germany. After the Jews of Frankfurt were expelled in 1614, he became rabbi in Prague but after his wife died in 1621 moved to the Land of Israel where he was rabbi of the Ashkenazi community. In 1625, Horowitz was imprisoned by the pasha (Ottoman governor) and held to ransom. On his release, he became rabbi of Safed. He died in Tiberias and was buried near to Maimonides. He is best known for his compendium, Shenei Lukhot ha-Berit, both he and the book being generally known by its initials, "Shelah". It contained laws of the festivals and the 613 commandments. It soon became one of the classics of rabbinic study and influenced early Hasidic thought. Horowitz was also a kabbalist and was responsible for the introduction of a number of kabbalistic prayers into the prayer book, on which he wrote a commentary.

Born in Odessa, Russia (now Ukraine) she was the daughter of Yiddish stage actress Esther Rachel Kaminska (1870-1925) and actor, director and stage producer, Avram Izhak Kaminski (1867–1918). She was the sister of musician Josef Kaminsky (1903-1972) and cousin of actor Danny Kaye. Ida Kaminska began a stage career at the age of five. Her first movie role was in 1912 in Mirele Efros, with her mother and her sister in other roles in the film. Her film career was brief, only appearing in four other movies in her entire career. However, in 1965, she starred in the Slovak and Czech movie The Shop on Main Street (Obchod na korze, directed by Ján Kadár and Elmar Klos), and she received a 1966 nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role. Her last role was The Angel Levine (1970), directed by Ján Kadár. Following her death from cardiovascular disease in 1980, she was interred in the Yiddish theater section of the Mount Hebron Cemetery in Flushing, New York.

Kafka, Franz (1883-1924), author, born to a middle class family in Prague, Bohemia (then part of Austria-Hungary, now in the Czech Republic) Kafka was a lonely child. He studied at a German high school and then at university, becoming a doctor of law. He found positions in insurance companies, where he worked long hours and eventually had to resign owing to poor health. From 1917 he suffered from tuberculosis and much of his life from then on was spent in Sanatoriums. He was buried in the family tomb in Prague. Only a few of his works - and not his best known - were published during his lifetime and he left instructions to his friend and literary executor, Max Brod, to burn the remainder. Brod disobeyed and the publication of his novels brought Kafka posthumous world fame. Best-known are his novels, "The Trial", "The Castle", and "America", all written in German. Their world of frustration and nightmarish hopelessness brought the word 'Kafkaesque' into the language.

Mahler, Gustav (1860-1911) , composer and conductor. Born in Kalischt, Bohemia, (the former Austro-Hungarian Empire) in 1875 he was sent to study music in Vienna at the Conservatory and with Anton Bruckner. From 1880 he rose through positions in Kassel (1883), Prague, Leipzig (second to Arthur Nikisch), Budapest (1888) and Hamburg (1891) to become director of the Vienna Court Opera in 1897. In order to secure this position Mahler had to convert to Catholicism. Between 1898-1901 he also directed the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra. His tenure in Vienna brought the opera to artistic achievements previously unknown. At the core of the repertoire he put Mozart’s and Wagner’s operas. Mahler resigned in 1907 because of serious intrigues. He became guest conductor at the Metropolitan Opera and the New York Philharmonic Orchestra. In 1909 he was appointed director of the Philharmonic Society. Mahler tried to free himself from traditional performances and devote himself to the precise clarification of the works' sense and content. He often undertook corrections of the scores he conducted. Throughout the years Mahler adopted a work pattern: composing during summer vacations and rehearsing his compositions in the autumn. Even though his major occupation was conducting operas, he was a composer devoted to symphony and Lied. He composed 9 symphonies and left a draft of the tenth. He wrote songs and song cycles for voice and piano from German medieval and contemporary literature, among them LIEDER EINES FAHRENDEN GESELLEN (1883-1885) and KINDERTOTENLIEDER (1901-1904, both cycles for voice and orchestra). His “symphony in songs” DAS LIED VON DER ERDE (1907/08) is based on six songs from Chinese Flute by Hans Bethge, written for voice and large orchestra. He died in Vienna.

Composer. Born in Prague, Czechoslovakia, he studied at the conservatories of Prague and Leipzig (among others, with Reger). He earned world fame with his comic opera SCHWANDA THE BAGPIPER, which was performed in Prague in 1927. It combined tuneful melody with Czech and Slovak folk music. The polka and fugue from the opera are often performed in orchestral concerts. He also wrote HEBREW SONG (1936). In 1939 he went to the United States, settled in New York City and started using American folk-music material in his works as in UNDER THE SPREADING CHESTNUT TREE (1939), THE LEGEND OF SLEEPY HOLLOW for orchestra (1940) and THE LINCOLN SYMPHONY (1941). Weinberger also composed the operas OUTCASTS OF POKER FLAT (1932; based on the story by Bret Harte) and WALLENSTEIN (1937), and the ballet SARATOGA (1941). Depressed by his inability to be part of the American music scene he committed suicide in St. Petersburg, Florida (USA). His manuscripts are preserved at the National and University Library in Jerusalem.

Weisgall, Hugo (1912- 1997), composer, born in Ivancice, Moravia, Czech Republic (then paert of Austria-Hungary). Weisgall was eight years old when he immigrated to the United States. From 1927-1932 he studied piano, harmony and composition at the Peabody Conservatory in Baltimore. He was the conductor of Har Sinai Temple Choir (1931-1942) and the Youth Alliance Orchestra (1935-1842) in Baltimore. In 1952 he was Chairman of the Cantor’s Institute of the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York. His works deal with social and moral issues and his style is usually expressionistic atonal, sometimes twelve-tone, idiom. In 1944 his first significant work – SOLDIER SONG –was published. His operas include THE TENOR (per.1952), THE STRANGER (per. 1952), SIX CHARACTERS IN SEARCH OF AN AUTHOR (per. 1959), PURGATORY (per. 1961) and JENNY, OR THE HUNDRED NIGHTS (per. 1976). Died in New York.

Weltsch, Robert (1891-1982), journalist and prominent Zionist in Weimar Germany, born in Prague, Czech Republic (then part of the Austria-Hungary). Prague city had a strong Jewish community which was culturally German. His father, attorney Theodore Weltsch, was active in local Jewish public affairs and at the turn of the century served as director general of the "Centralverein zur Pflege Jüdischer Angelegenheiten" ("Central Society for Handling Jewish Affairs"), founded in Prague in 1885. In 1910, Weltsch graduated from the German gymnasium of the Alt-Stadt in Prague, and went on to study law at the Karl-Ferdinand German University of Prague. He was a member of the Zionist student association Bar Kochba, and between 1910 and 1914 he published articles in German-language Zionist newspapers including the Prague-based weekly "Selbstwehr" as well as in "Die Welt". During World War I he served as an officer of the Austrian army on the Russian front. During this period he continued to write articles for the German-language Zionist press. While wishing to see a large Jewish community living in Palestine, he strongly favoured a future bi-national state in which both Jews and Arabs would live side by side. Weltsch’s reservations about the establishment of a Jewish nation-state in Palestine constituted just one component of his critical attitude toward the very principle of self-determination of national groups within multiethnic territories. He regarded the actual implementation of this principle in East Central Europe after World War I as a fateful mistake, whose origin he traced to the “unnatural,” external intervention of the United States. Shortly after WW I, Zionist leaders in Germany invited Weltsch to Berlin to serve as editor in chief of "Jüdische Rundschau", the official journal of the Zionist Federation of Germany and one of the most widely read interwar publications in the Jewish world. It appeared twice per week andt its peak the magazine had a regular readership of over 35,000. Because of his consistent adherence to the binational cause and his critical approach toward the policies of the mainstream Zionist movement, Weltsch often faced attempts to depose him as the editor of "Juedische Rundschau". Nevertheless, he held this post until 1938, when the Nazis forced the newspaper to cease publication. From 1925 to 1933 Weltsch was active in the Zionist "Brit Shalom" movement which advocated the binational solution for Palestine in which he believed. His newspaper's reaction to Hitler's rise to power was an article of 1933 in which it was written that “we understand the psychological and intellectual basis” of the Nazi policies and respect their goal of national renewal. “This, after all what the Zionists want for the Jews. We believe that a nationally conscious Jewry could find its way to a modus vivendi with an inwardly strengthened Geman nationalism freed from the dross of crude anti-Semitism.” Weltsch's most famous article was published immediately after the Nazis had organized a boycott of all Jewish-owned shops in 1934. In the article Weltsch wrote "Wear it with pride, the yellow badge”. It was a call for strength, solidarity and unity amongst the Jews amongst German Jews who until then had been very fragmented and made every effort to assimilate into German life. (His phrase was not a reference to the wearing of the yellow armband which Jews were obliged to wear from 1941). Wetsch had passionately agreed with the comment of the editor of the Vossische Zeitung who a short time earlier had written “...from a higher standpoint anti-Semitic oppression has perhaps turned out to be a boon, in that a far greater number of German Jews than ever before are becoming more mindful of their traditions and their great past.” In 1935 the "Juedische Rundschau" was temporarily closed after Weltsch asserted that “The Jew is a human being also” after a Goebbels' speech labelling Jews subhuman “flees”. After fleeing to Palestine in 1938, he continued agitating for accommodation with the Arab population of Mandate Palestine. Weltsch had wished to recommence publication of the "Juedische Rundschau" in Palestine, but he encountered vigorous opposition from the Hebrew newspaper establishment on account of his controversial views. Weltsch worked for "Haaretz" and in 1945 he moved to London, England, to become the newspaper's correspondent there. In this capacity he covered the Nuremberg Trials. He was a major force in establishing the Leo Baeck Institute in London, which is dedicated to preserving German-Jewish culture and is named after the rabbi and leader of the German-Jewish community during the Nazi years. Weltsch edited the Institute's Yearbook from 1956 to 1978. From that time until his return to Jerusalem in 1978, he made a substantial contribution to the newspaper as a political journalist, a political analyst and book reviewer.